Mining Sentence Examples

Pa never did any mining himself.

Charlie asked, mentioning the area's last major mining operation.

The dust emitted from mining the ore was poisonous in its raw state.

I think we just started a mining business.

Mining is of very considerable importance.

The Denver and Rio Grande Western made daily warm-weather trips up the mountain to the mining town of Silverton, 40 miles away.

Cattle and sheep are produced in large numbers in some of the provinces, while in others mining forms the chief industry.

The centre of the mining district (Metalla of the itineraries) was probably about 5 m.

Some samples of ore, coal and limestone, obtained in the Mittagong district, with pig-iron and castings manufactured therefrom, were exhibited at the Mining Exhibition in London and obtained a first award.

Upper Hungary and the mining towns were soon in Thbkoly's possession.

The lack of employment in factories naturally affected the coal mining industry, and indeed every industry in the states, except those connected with the export trade, was severely affected.

In the mining and woollen industries they have fallen, but have increased in mechanical, chemical, silk and cotton industries.

Finally, under the heads of administration, mine valuation, mining education, accidents, hygiene and mining law, will be discussed matters having important bearing on mining operations.

Special methods of mining are dealt with in the separate articles on Coal, Gold, and other minerals and metals.

Quarrying and ORE-Dressing, which may be considered as branches of mining, are also discussed in separate articles.

Work undertaken to secure this information must be distinguished from prospecting, which is the search for mineral deposits and from development, work undertaken to prepare for actual mining operations.

The risk of failure in mining enterprises is offset by the chances of more than ordinary profits.

The Nord, which serves the rich mining, industrial and farming districts of Nord, Pas-de-Calais, Aisne and Somme, connecting with the Belgian railways at several points.

Over 70,000 men are employed in the gold-mining industry, more than two-thirds of them being engaged in quartz mining.

The satisfactory price obtained during recent years has enabled renewed attention to be paid to copper mining in South Australia, and the production of the metal in 1905 was valued at £470,324.

Turquoises have been found near Wangaratta, in Victoria, and mining operations are being carried on in that state.

Agriculture everywhere expanded, the mining industry revived, and, if it had not been for the low prices of staple products, the visible effects of the crisis would have passed away within a very few years.

Exceptions were made permitting the states to grant bounties on mining and (with the consent of the parliament) on exports of produce or manufactures - Western Australia being for a time partially exempted from the prohibition to impose import duties.

The wide streets are traversed by a system of tramways, which pass through modern suburbs to the mining district about two leagues inland, and on the west a canal enables small vessels to enter the town without using the port.

The opening of the railway enabled it to compete successfully with Alicante, and revived the mining and metallurgical industries, while considerable sums were expended on bringing the coast and land defences up to date, and adding new quays, docks and other harbour works.

Sulphur mining M h 1 supplies large industries of sulphur-refining and grinding, - in spite of American competition.

Textile, building and mining industries show the highest percentage of strikes, since they give employment to large numbers of men concentrated in single localities.

Among the schools may be mentioned the magnificently equipped Rhenish-Westphalian Polytechnic School (built 1865-1870) and the school of mining and electricity, founded in 1897.

It lies in the midst of the great red and brown hematite iron-ore deposits of the Mesabi Range - the richest in the Lake Superior district - and the mining and shipping of this ore are its principal industries.

The mining industry, for which the town was formerly also famous and which embraced tin, silver and cobalt, has now ceased.

The capital of the state is GoYAz, or Villa-Boa de Goyaz, a mining town on the Rio Vermelho, a tributary of the Araguaya rising on the northern slopes of the Serra de Santa Rita.

Notwithstanding the wealth of the country in minerals and metals of all kinds, and the endeavours made by government to encourage mining, including the imposition of protective Mining tariffs even against Finland (in 1885), this and the related and re- industries are still at a low stage of development.

For the petroleum industry and the mining of the Caucasus region, see Caucasia.

Mining in Poland and Siberia are more fully discussed under those headings.'

Chelyabinsk was linked by a transverse line with the middle Urals railway, which connects Perm, the head of navigation in the Volga basin, with Tyumen, the head of navigation on the Ob and Irtysh, passing through Ekaterinburg and other mining centres of the middle Urals.

Its chief industry is the mining of anthracite coal; the principal establishments are railway repair shops, which in 1905 gave employment to 48.9% of all wage-earners engaged in manufacturing.

After this last year the output of the Comstock mines declined on account of the exhaustion of the ore supply, the increased expense of mining at great depths, and the decrease in the price of silver.

Another mining region that attained importance in the early period was the Eureka District, in Eureka county, about 90 m.

With the working out of the deposits in the Comstock region, the mining industry declined, and between 1877 and 1900 there was a period of great depression, in which Nevada fell from first to sixth place among the silver-producing states and Territories.

In May 1900, however, very rich deposits of gold and silver were discovered in Nye county, near the summit of the San Antonio Mountains, and a new era began in Nevada's mining industry.

This discovery gave a new impetus to prospecting in south-western Nevada, and it was soon discovered that the district was not an isolated mining region but was in the heart of a great mineral belt.

Mines and mining claims are exempt from taxation, but a quarterly tax is levied on the net proceeds of mines, and is not to be paid a second time so long as the products remain in the hands of the original producer.

The instrument contained a very unpopular clause taxing all mining property, unproductive as well as productive.

It possesses two Protestant and four Roman Catholic churches, a synagogue, a mining school, a convent, a hospital, two orphanages, and barracks.

Gleiwitz is the centre of the mining industry of Upper Silesia.

The principal mining product is mercury, extracted at Idria, while iron and copper ore, zinc and coal are also found.

A large number of applications for mining concessions have been received since the establishment of the autonomous government.

Michoacan is essentially a mining region, producing gold, silver, lead and cinnabar, and having rich deposits of copper, coal, petroleum and sulphur.

Then he went to San Francisco and secured employment in the office of a mining engineer.

In 1897 he went to Australia as mining engineer for an English syndicate and developed successful mines.

After his return to America he had other offers from abroad, and thereafter was engaged in mining development throughout the world.

Later he was connected with several mining companies, with offices in London, and there he was when the World War broke out in 1914.

He was the author of Principles of Mining (1909), based on lectures given at Stanford and at Columbia universities.

During the first half of the 19th century North Carolina was a mining state of the first importance; in 1804 it was the only state in the United States from which gold was obtained.

Iron ores are widely distributed within the state, and there have been times since the eve of the War of Independence when the mining of it was an industry of relatively great importance.

Minas Geraes is a mining state, though the mining industry has lost much of its importance through the decline in the output of gold and diamonds.

The state monopoly was abolished in 1832, and mining has since been carried on by private enterprise.

A considerable admixture from other nationalities has resulted from the influx of mining adventurers, and some German colonies have been established in the state.

In the southern half of the range are the chief mining districts of Russia.

Its chief industry is the mining of anthracite coal at several collieries in the vicinity; and at Fountain Springs, 1 m.

Mining attracts much attention in the sierras, and its mineral deposits are rich.

The mining industry is growing rapidly in importance in spite of costly and deficient means of communication, want of capital, and lack of general initiative.

Derbyshire has always been mainly a mining and manufacturing county, though the rich land in the south formerly produced large quantities of corn.

Soon after her marriage miners had been brought from Lorraine to dig for gold at Crawford Moor, and she now carried on successful mining enterprises for coal and lead, which enabled her to meet the expenses of her government.

Coal was discovered here as early as 1770, and the mining of it was begun not later than 1828, but no accurate account of the output was kept until 1872, in which year it was 5,315,294 short tons; this was increased to 18,988,150 short tons in 1900, and to 26,270,639 short tons in 1908 - in 1907 it was 32,142,419 short tons.

There is some iron ore in the eastern and south-eastern parts of the state, and the mining of it was begun early in the 19th century; but the output decreased from 254,294 long tons in 1889 to only 26,585 long tons (all carbonate) in 1908.

Foundry and machine-shop products, consisting largely of engines, boilers, metal-working machinery, wood-working machinery, pumping machinery, mining machinery and stoves, rank second among the state's manufactures; their value increased from $43,617,07 2 in 1890 to $72,399,632 in 1900, and to $94,507,691 in 1905.

The iron mines are among the oldest in the country; mining began probably as early as 1731.

The fierce mining population of the town was mainly German, and fanatically Catholic, in contrast with Prague, which was Czech and utraquist.

He may lease the settled land, or any part of it, for any time not exceeding (a) in the case of a building lease, 99 years; (b) in the case of a mining lease, 60 years, (c) in the case of any other lease, 21 years.

The profits obtained from ground-nuts (Arachis hypogea) in Gambia, gold mining in the Gold Coast, and from products of the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) in the palm-oil belt serve to prevent much attention being given to cotton in these districts.

Brazil's chief industrial importance is due to its situation in the heart of the "Brazil block" coal (so named because it naturally breaks into almost perfect rectangular blocks) and clay and shale region; among its manufactures are mining machinery and tools, boilers, paving and enamelled building bricks, hollow bricks, tiles, conduits, sewer-pipe and pottery.

Among institutions there are a specially fine public library, museums of geology and natural history and antiquities, mining and science schools, the West Cornwall Infirmary and a meteorological station.

It is an old mining town, situated at an altitude of 1945 ft.

It possesses a famous academy of mining and forestry, founded by Maria Theresa in 1760, to which are attached a remarkable collection of minerals, and a chemical laboratory.

In the 12th century, together with the whole mining region of northern Hungary, it was colonized by German settlers, who later embraced the Reformation.

After the war its activity was shown by an increasing number of assassinations, burnings and other outrages, until by 1875 it completely dominated the mining classes and forced a general strike in the coal regions.

Gowen (1836-1889), president of the Philadelphia and Reading Coal and Iron Company, sent James McParlan, an Irish Catholic and a Pinkerton detective (who some thirty years later attracted attention in the investigation of the assassination of Governor Steunenberg of Idaho), to the mining region in 1873; he joined the order, lived among the "Molly Maguires" for more than two years, and even became secretary of the Shenandoah division, one of the most notoriously criminal lodges of the order.

Mining industries are still undeveloped, but considerable progress has been made in manufactures, especially of textile fabrics.

The industries of the Lake District include slate quarrying and some lead and zinc mining, and weaving, bobbin-making and pencil-making.

The mining industry on which the town formerly depended is extinct, but the district is agricultural and dairy farming is carried on, while the town has flour mills, tanneries and iron foundries.

From a mining settlement the city grew as the inequalities of the site permitted.

Ouro Preto is the seat of the best mining school in Brazil.

With the decay of her mining industries, Ouro Preto had become merely the political centre of the state.

Many industries flourish on the outskirts of the town, including rope and net manufactures, flour mills, saw mills, mining railways, paper mills.

While washing out the sands of the North Saskatchewan for gold is still somewhat resorted to, the only real mining in Alberta is that for coal.

It is one of the most populous mining centers in the county.

Mining is carried on only to a small extent for arsenic, although there are traces of former more extensive workings for other metals.

In 1907 48.5% of all wage-earners were engaged in agriculture, fishing and mining, 16.3 in manufactures, and 17.7 in trade and transportation.

After 1868 the mines were again abandoned and flooded, the mining property being ruined during the civil war.

No shafts or tunnels are necessary except for exploration; the mining consists entirely in open-cut and terrace work.

Mining for the precious metals ceased at a very early date, after rich discoveries were made on the continent.

Commerce (resting largely upon specialized agriculture) is vastly more prominent as yet than manufacturing and mining in the island's economy.

After 1881 the Mining Company of Bosnia began to develop the coal and iron fields; and from 1886 its operations were continued by the government.

Its converts nevertheless included many of the Bosnian nobles and the ban Kulin (1180-1204), whose reign was long proverbial for its prosperity, owing to the flourishing state of commerce and agriculture, and the extensive mining operations carried on by the Ragusans.

Should a different mineral from that specified in the imperial firman for a mining concession be discovered in a free state, a fresh firman is necessary to exploit it.

If a mining concession is granted within lands which are private property or which are " real vakuf lands " (arazii-mevkufe-i-sahiha) only one-fifth of the proportional rent is payable to the state, the other four-fifths reverting to the land-owner or the vakufs, as the case may be.

The other public buildings of the town include the infirmary founded in 1837, the present buildings being erected in 1883, and subsequently enlarged; the sanatorium, the seamen's hospital, the South Wales Institute of Mining Engineers (which has a library) built in 1894, the exchange, an institute for the blind, a school for the deaf and dumb, and one of the two prisons for the county (the other being at Swansea).

According to his views this nation, very numerous at that epoch - which preceded the Iron-Period civilization of the Turco-Tatars, - were pretty well acquainted with mining; the remains of their mines, sometimes 50 ft.

The whole district is rich in coal, the mining of which is extensively carried on.

Although the iron ranges in the north-east had been explored about 1860 and were known to contain a great wealth of ore, it was not until 1884 that mining was actually begun on the Vermilion Range.

Since that date the development of iron mining in Minnesota has been remarkable, and the increase both in volume and value of the output has been practically uninterrupted.

The ore, which in many places is found in an almost pure state, is at or near the surface and the process of mining is one of great simplicity and ease.

The maintenance of peace and order, and the mining development of the interior, have added to the trade and prosperity of the port.

The Bochumer Verein fur Bergbau (mining) and Gusstahl Fabrication (steel manufacture) is one of the principal trusts in this industry, founded in 1854.

There are a mining and a metallurgical school.

The first settlement was made here in 1849; rich deposits of gold were soon afterwards found on or near the surface, and the settlement had the characteristic growth of a western mining town; its output of gold reached its maximum in 1850-1851.

A typical feature of the north-eastern border of the high plateau is a succession of broad longitudinal 5 valleys along its outer base, ' The wide area between the middle Lena and the Amur, as well as the hilly tracts west of Lake Baikal, and the Yeniseisk mining region are in this condition.

Mining is the next most important industry after agriculture.

In East Siberia gold is obtained almost exclusively from gravel-washings, quartz mining being confined to three localities, one near Vladivostok and two in Transbaikalia.

Mining, the second industry in point of importance, is dealt with above.

There is considerable movement of grain in Siberia itself, the populations of vast portions of the territory, especially of the mining regions, having to rely upon imported corn.

It starts from Perm on the Kama, and, crossing the Urals, reaches Ekaterinburg - the centre of mining industry - and Tyumen on the Tura, whence steamers ply via Tobolsk to Tomsk.

The principal mining districts are those of Hazaribagh in Bengal and Nellore in Madras; in the former district the mica has usually a ruby tint, whilst in the latter it is more often greenish.

Mica mining is an industry of considerable importance, especially in India; but here the methods of mining are very primitive and wasteful.

Mining is only of slight importance, small quantities of coal and iron-ore being extracted in the Alpine foothill region; graphite is found near Miihldorf.

The Caldera & Copiapo railway (built 1848-1851 and one of the first in South America) extends beyond Copiapo to the Chanarcillo mines (50 m.) and other mining districts.

It was primarily a military station and transport post on the road to Peru, but after the discovery of the rich silver deposits near Chanarcillo by Juan Godoy in 1832 it became an important mining centre.

It has a good mining school and reduction works, and is the supply station for an extensive mining district.

In 1823 he was selected along with Dufrenoy by Brochant de Villiers, the professor of geology in the Ecole des Mines, to accompany him on a scientific tour to England and Scotland, in order to inspect the mining and metallurgical establishments of the country, and to study the principles on which Greenough's geological map of England (1820) had been prepared, with a view to the construction of a similar map of France.

Extending across the great central valley of Chile, the province has a considerable area devoted to agriculture, but much attention is given to cattle and mining.

It is situated in a rich agricultural and mining district, and contains county and railway buildings and numerous mills andfactories.

The more arid districts offer no inducement for settlement and are inhabited only by a few roving bands of Indians, but there were settlements of whites in the grazing districts of the Rio Branco at an early date, and a few hundreds of adventurers have occupied the mining districts of the east.

Of the exports of 1905, 36% were of this class, while those of the pastoral and mining industries combined were not quite 61%.

As early as 1618 a code of laws for the regulation of the mining industry had been drawn up by Philip III., the executive and judicial functions in the mining districts being vested in a provedor, and the fiscal in a treasurer, who received the royal fifths and superintended the weighing of all the gold, rendering a yearly account of all discoveries and produce.

The same infatuated passion for mining speculation which had characterized the Spanish settlers in South America now began to actuate the Portuguese; labourers and capital were drained off to the mining districts, and Brazil, which had hitherto in great measure supplied Europe with sugar, sank before the competition of the English and French.

Pornbal's arrangements extended also to the interior of the country, where he extinguished at once the now indefinite and oppressive claims of the original donatories of the captaincies, and strengthened and enforced the regulations of the mining districts.

Thenceforward affairs went on prosperously; the mining districts continued to be enlarged; the trading companies of the littoral provinces were abolished, but the impulse they had given to agriculture remained.

Newcastle is also a mining town, but depends chiefly on its large trade in wool.

Textiles, largely cotton goods, hardware, mining and agricultural machinery, tobacco and foodstuffs form the bulk of the imports.

Natal colonists were not merely the first in the field with the transport traffic to the new goldfields; they became some of the earliest proprietors of mines, and for several years many of the largest mining companies had their chief offices at Pietermaritzburg or Durban.

Its chief mineral products are coal, nitre, sulphur, alum, soda, saltpetre, gypsum, porcelain-earth, pipe-clay, asphalt, petroleum, marble and ores of gold, silver, mercury, copper, iron, lead, zinc, antimony, cobalt and arsenic. The principal mining regions are Zsepes-Giimor in Upper Hungary, the Kremnitz-Schemnitz district, the Nagybanya district, the Transylvanian deposits and the Banat.

The value of the mining (except salt) and smelting production in Hungary amounted in 1900 to £4,500,000, while in 1877 the value was only £I,50o,000.

The number of persons employed in mining and smelting works was (1900 census) 70,476.

Among special schools the principal mining schools are at Selmeczbanya, Nagyag and Felsobanya; the principal agricultural colleges at Debreczen and Kolozsvar; and there are a school of forestry at Selmeczbanya, military colleges at Budapest, Kassa, Deva and Zagrab, and a naval school at Fiume.

He himself erected a whole cordon of forts round the flourishing mining towns of northern Hungary.

At this very time northern Hungary, including the wealthy mining towns, was in the possession of the Hussite mercenary Jan Giszkra, who held them nominally for the infant king Ladislaus V., still detained at Vienna by his kinsman the emperor.

Of agricultural produce there was barely sufficient for home consumption, but the mining industries had reached a very high level of excellence, and iron, tin and copper were very largely exported from the northern counties to Danzig and other Baltic ports.

The mineral wealth of the state is very great, and the mining industries, largely operated with foreign capital, are important.

The mining operations are chiefly centred in the Sierra Mojada, Sierra Carmen, and in the Santa Rosa valley.

Besides the alluvial deposits a little mining is carried on, gold being present in the thin veins of quartz which cross the sandstone.

The ground was discovered to be diamondiferous in 1897, but it was not until 1903, when mining began on the Premier mine, situated 20 m.

In June 1903 mining began and the diamonds found in the first five months realized over £90,000.

Next to mining agriculture is the most important industry.

There are few manufacturing undertakings other than those connected with mining, agriculture and the development of Johannesburg.

The chief sources of revenue are customs, mining royalties, railways, native revenue (poll tax and passes), posts and telegraphs, stamp and transfer duties, land revenue and taxes on trades and professions.

The mining nien, especially the heads of the larger houses, did not care at this juncture to run the risk of political agitation.

In September a meeting of the chambers of mines and commerce was held at Johannesburg, and a letter on various matters of the greatest importance to the mining industry was addressed to the Boer executive.

In the absence of Charles Leonard, who had been sent as one of the delegates to Cape Town to interview Rhodes, Lionel Phillips, a partner in Messrs Eckstein & Co., the largest mining firm on the Rand, was elected chairman.

Besides law, the important departments of finance and mines were organized, and steps taken to remedy the grievances of the commercial and mining classes.

In addition to the mining, the district produces large quantities of wool.

Cobar is a municipality, as also is the adjacent township of Gladstone, with a mining population.

In addition to these, there are normal, polytechnic, mining and agricultural schools, the last at Caracas and provided with a good library and museum.

Mining is now the chief industry of the district.

The mineral resources include silver, gold, copper, lead, tin, iron and coal, and mining is the chief industry.

It is the terminus of some important narrow-gauge mining railways and steam tramways, which place it in communication with the mining districts of Guipuzcoa and Navarre, and with the valuable oak, pine and beech forests of both provinces.

The term 1 is not limited to underground operations, but includes also surface excavations, as in placer mining and open-air workings of coal and ore deposits by methods similar to quarrying, and boring operations for oil, natural gas or brine.

Mining may be subdivided into the operations of prospecting or search for minerals, exploration and development, work preparatory to active operations, and working.

By sinking additional pits or by extending the costeaning trenches and uncovering the outcrop of the deposit more fully it is sometimes possible to obtain all the information required for the most extensive and important mining operations.

In the case of such altered deposits surface exploration alone is likely to be misleading, and it is important to push the underground exploration far enough to reach the unaltered part of the deposit, or at least deep enough to make it certain that there is a sufficient quantity of altered or enriched ore to form the basis of profitable mining operations.

The money so spent, if judiciously used, insures the undertaking against loss by diminishing the mining risk, and is thus analogous to premiums paid to insure against fire or other sources of loss.

As soon as it appears reasonably certain that the property is workable the mine will be opened by one or more shafts, drifts or tunnels, and the underground passages for active mining operations will be started.

Drifts, entries and tunnels find their chief application in mining regions cut by deep valleys.

In metal mining, when the workable portions of the deposit are small and separated by unworkable areas, the levels serve also the purpose of exploration, and in such cases must not be so far apart as to risk missing valuable mineral.

In irregular and uncertain deposits this work of development should be kept at all times so far in advance of mining operations as to ensure a regular and uniform output.

A mine, however, may be over-developed, which results in loss of interest on the capital unnecessarily locked up for years by excessive development, and involves additional cost for the maintenance of such openings until they are needed for active mining operations.

The method, of mining adopted must secure the extraction of the mineral at a minimum cost.

The principal item in mining cost is that of labour, which is expended chiefly in breaking down the mineral, either by the use of hand tools or with the aid of powder.

While the width of the working-place is thus limited by the strength of the roof, its length is determined by other considerations - namely, the rapidity with which the mining work can be conducted and the length of time it is practicable to keep the working-place open, and also by the increased difficulty of handling the minerals sometimes experienced when the workings reach undue length.

In long-wall and in the work of mining pillars the roof will be supported on one side only, the overhanging beds acting as cantilevers.

In the early history of mining there was but little attempt at systematic development and working, and the mines were often irregular and tortuous.

With but slight modifications permitting the use of pumps and hoistingmachinery equally simple methods of mining may be seen to-day when the deposit is of small extent.

In the systematic mining of larger deposits, the simplest plan consists in mining large areas by means of numerous working-places under the protection of pillars of mineral left for the purpose, and later mining these pillars systematically, allowing the overlying rock beds to fall and fill the abandoned workings.

In this method of mining the different stopes must be kept close together; otherwise there is much added labour in shovelling the broken ore down to the main level.

This method of mining requires but little timbering, FIG.

In this method of mining no pillars need be left under the levels, as the rock-filling gives sufficient support to the roof.

These separate areas are then mined in small rooms, each room being timbered as in mining under a weak roof rock.

Before abandoning a room it is usual to cover the bottom of the working-place with laggingpoles, which facilitate the mining of the floor below.

The mining of each floor is carried on in sections with small working-places which are first driven of moderate height to their full length and width, leaving a back of ore above and pillars of ore between to support the upper portion of the upper layer or floor.

The bottom-slice caving system of mining begins at the bottom of a hundred-foot block of ground, a floor being excavated under the whole area, leaving pillars of sufficient size to support the ground above.

When rock filling is available, as when the ore contains much barren material to be left behind in mining, the ore body is divided into blocks of convenient height as above, and these blocks are divided into floors, the bottom floor of each block however being attacked.

Instead of mining in horizontal floors the filling method permits the ore to be mined in vertical chambers or slices which extend from one level to the next above and from one wall of the deposit to the other.

This method of mining and filling can be used when the work is done in horizontal floors or in transverse chambers.

The use of the heavy timbers and continuous framing which characterize this system facilitates greatly the work of mining and maintaining the haulage roads on the different floors, and gives more rigid support to the unmined portions of the block of ground above.

Examples of other mining methods will be found under Coal.

The cost of mining by the milling method does not greatly exceed the cost of steam-shovel work.

Steel frames are more durable than those of wood, and have become common in nearly all mining countries, especially where timber is scarce.

Man-engines were long used, but are now practically abandoned in both Great Britain and the United States, and few remain in any of the mining regions of the world.

In mining regions where 'water transportation is interrupted during certain months of the year the mineral must be stored underground, or in great stock-piles on the surface.

In coal mining the market demand varies in different seasons, and surface storage is sometimes necessary to permit regular work at the mines.

In many mining regions long tunnels have been driven at great expense to secure natural drainage.

Under modern mining conditions drainage tunnels have lost much of their former importance.

Taking into account the risk attending all mining operations, which make necessary large interest and amortization charges on the cost of a tunnel, it will in most cases be advisable to raise the water to the surface by mechanical means.

In mining operations explosives are used on a large scale and the powder gases contain large quantities of the very poisonous gas, carbon monoxide, a small percentage of which may cause death, and even a minute percentage of which in the air will seriously affect the health.

This has a serious effect on the health and efficiency of the workmen employed, and in extreme cases may even result in increased cost of mining operations.

Two compartments of a shaft may be utilized for this purpose, but greater safety is ensured by two separate openings, as required by law in most mining countries.

There has been much speculation as to the depth to which it will be practicable to push the work of mining.

The special difficulties which attend deep mining, in addition to the problems of hoisting ore and raising water from great depths, are the increase of temperature of the rocks and the pressure of the overlying strata.

The possibility of hoisting and pumping from great depths has been discussed, and it remains now to consider the other conditions which will tend to limit mining operations in depth - namely, increase of temperature and increase of rock pressure.

It is apparent that the combined effect of internal heat and rock pressure will greatly increase the cost of mining at depths of 8000 or 10,000 ft., and will probably render mining impracticable in many instances at depths not much greater.

In organizing a mining company it must be recognized that mining is of necessity a temporary business.

Mining is also subject to the risks of ordinary business enterprises, and to additional risks and uncertainties peculiar to itself.

In addition mining operations are subject to interruption and added expense from explosions, mine fires, flooding, and the caving-in of the workings.

To provide for the repayment from earnings of the capital invested in a mining property and expended in development, and to provide for the depreciation in value of the plant and equipment, an amortization fund must be accumulated during the life of the mine; or, if it be desired to continue the business of mining elsewhere, a similar fund must be created for the purchase, development and equipment of a new property to take the place of the original deposit when that shall be exhausted.

To cover the special risks of mining, capital should earn a higher interest than in ordinary business, and if we assume that the sinking-fund be safely invested, we must compute the amortization on a lower basis than 5%.

In the case of mining properties these profits are more or less uncertain, and cannot be accurately determined until the deposit has been thoroughly explored and fully developed.

In many instances, indeed, profits are more or less uncertain during the whole life of the mine, and it is evident that the value of the mining property must be more or less speculative.

Further, both time and money are required for the development of the mining property before any profit can be realized.

In order to determine the probable profit and life of the mine a definite scale of operations must be assumed, the money required for development and plant and for working capital must be estimated, the methods of mining and treating the ore determined, and their probable cost estimated.

It is necessary to have the work directed by men thoroughly familiar with the characteristics of mineral deposits, and with wide experience in mining.

For the purpose of training such men special schools of mining engineering (ecoles des mines, Bergakademie) have been established in most mining countries.

A student of mining must receive thorough instruction in geology; he must study mining as practised in different countries, and the metallurgical and mechanical treatment of minerals; and he should have an engineering education, especially on mechanical and electrical lines.

These miners' schools (Bergschule, ecoles des mineurs) give elementary instruction in chemistry, physics, mechanics, mineralogy, geology and mathematics and drawing, as well as in such details of the art of mining as will best supplement the practical information already acquired in underground work.

The training of a mining engineer merely begins in the schools, and mining graduates should serve an apprenticeship before they accept responsibility for important mining operations.

Mining is an extra-hazardous occupation, and the catastrophes, which from time to time have occurred, have caused agencies to enforce their authority.

While in some cases these laws are unnecessarily stringent and tend to restrict the business of mining yet on the whole they have had the effect of reducing greatly the loss of life and injuries of miners where they have been well enforced.

In some mining districts the coal is liable to spontaneous combustion.

Under favourable conditions mining may be conducted under the protection of a few yards of solid rock only, as in the submarine work for the removal of reefs in the harbours of San Francisco and New York.

At Silver Islet, Lake Superior, mining was successfully carried on for years under the protection of a coffer dam and an arch of rich silver ore less than 20 ft.

When large areas are undermined, as in submarine coal mining, it is best to have several hundred feet of protecting rock.

The history of mining is full of dramatic episodes of this character.

The conditions under Accidents which explosives may be stored, handled and used are from carefully formulated in the mining laws of most states, fro Explosives.

While mining is not necessarily an unhealthy occupation, miners are subject to certain diseases resulting from vitiated air, and from unusual or special conditions under which at times they are forced to work.

This seems to be due to the dust abundantly produced in mining operations, and especially by machine drills when boring " dry " (rising) blast holes.

On the other hand, as in mining ores containing lead, arsenic and mercury, the dust may be poisonous.

Ankylostomiasis is a disease which finds a congenial habitat in the warm damp atmosphere of mines, and has become a veritable scourge in some mining regions.

Under the common law the owner of the surface possesses all mining rights as well, unless these have been reserved by some previous owner of the property.

This has been recognized from the earliest times, and laws have been framed in all countries for the encouragement of mining enterprise.

In many cases the state or the ruler has sought to obtain a share in the profits of mining, or even to work mines for the individual profit of the ruler or of the state.

But in most cases it has been found better policy for the state to divest itself of all interest in mining property, and to extend all possible encouragement to those who undertake the development of the mineral wealth of the nation.

The mining laws of most civilized states grant the right of free prospecting over the public lands, protect the rights of the discoverer of the mineral deposit during the period of exploration, and provide for the acquisition of mineral property on favourable terms. Striking examples of the far-reaching effect of such laws is shown in the history of the Rocky Mountain region and western coast of the United States, the colonization and development of Australia, and the development of Alaska.

There are other ruby mines at Nanyaseik in the Myitkyina district and at Sagyin in the Mandalay district, where the mining is by native methods under licence-fees of Rs.5 and Rs.10 a month.

Other buildings are the castle, until 1793 the residence of the princes of the house of Nassau-Saarbrucken; a gymnasium, founded in 1615, and a celebrated mining academy.

For a considerable portion of the period between 1853 and 1865 John Petherick, a Welshman, originally a mining engineer, explored the Ghazal region, particularly the main stream and the Jur.

Next in importance to copper mining was the development of the palm-oil industry, which up to 1911 had been practically confined to the Mayumba district.

On his return he assisted his father in surveying the Stockton & Darlington and Liverpool && Manchester lines, but in 1824 he accepted an engagement in South America to take charge of the engineering operations of the Colombian Mining Association of London.

It is the headquarters of the Bulli Mining Company, whose coal-mine on the flank of the Illawarra Mountains is worked by a tunnel, 2 m.

Coal mining is an important industry, and the borough is supplied with natural gas.

The foreign population is chiefly concentrated in Lima and Callao, though mining and other industries have drawn small contingents to other places.

The professional schools include a school of civil and mining engineering at Lima (created 1876), a military school at Chorrillos under the direction of French instructors, a naval school at Callao, nine episcopal seminaries (one for each diocese), a national agricultural school in the vicinity of Lima (created 1902), and a few commercial schools.

It contains many valuable articles on history, topography, botany, mining, commerce and statistics.

Although her mining industries have been the longest and most widely known, the principal source of Peru's wealth is agriculture.

Mining was the chief industry of Peru under Spanish rule.

The Inca tribes were an agricultural and pastoral people, but the abundance of gold and silver in their possession at the time of the conquest shows that mining must have received considerable attention.

There was a decline in mining enterprise after the revolt of the colonists against Spanish rule, owing to the unsettled state of the country, and this decline continued in some measure to the end of the century.

In 1876 new mining laws were enacted which gave better titles to mining properties and better regulations for their operation, but the outbreak of the war with Chile at the end of the decade and the succeeding years of disorganization and partisan strife defeated their purpose.

Another new mining code was adopted in 1901, and this, with an improvement in political and economic conditions, has led to a renewal of mining enterprise.

Modern methods of hydraulic mining have been introduced to work the auriferous banks of Poto; elsewhere antiquated methods only are employed.

The number of mining claims (pertenencias) registered in 1907 was 12,858, according to official returns, each subject to a tax of 30 soles, or £3, per annum, the payment of which secures complete ownership of the property.

The public revenues are derived from customs, taxes, various inland and consumption taxes, state monopolies, the government wharves, posts and telegraphs, &c. The customs taxes include import and export duties, surcharges, harbour dues, warehouse charges, &c.; the inland taxes comprise consumption taxes on alcohol, tobacco, sugar and matches, stamps and stamped paper, capital and mining properties, licences, transfers of property, &c.; and the state monopolies cover opium and salt.

The longer Christina ruled, the more anxious for the future fate of her empire grew the men who had helped to build it up. Yet she gave fresh privileges to the towns; she encouraged trade and manufactures, especially the mining industries of the Dales; in 1649 she issued the first school ordinance for the whole kingdom; she encouraged foreign scholars to settle in Sweden; and native science and literature, under her liberal encouragement, flourished as they had never flourished before.

The province contains gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, coal and salt, but mining has never been developed to any extent.

The mining of iron ore was begun about 1767 in the vicinity of the present Cranston, and much of the metal was used in the making of cannon during the War of Independence, but the supply was soon exhausted.

Lead is of frequent occurrence, and indeed the area through which copper, silver, lead, tin and zinc are distributed in sufficient quantities to make mining answer, comprises at least 80,000 sq.

The richest mining districts are those of Cadereyta and Toliman, where there are metallurgical works for the reduction of ores.

Olmiitz is an important railway junction, and is the emporium of a busy mining and industrial district.

Next in importance comes the mining of brown coal, which has also been carried on for a long time.

It is the largest city in eastern Oregon, and is the centre of important mining, lumber, farming and live-stock interests.

In 463 after a siege of more than two years the Athenians captured Thasos, with which they had quarrelled over mining rights in the Strymon valley.

In these thoroughfares and in several of the streets which intersect them are the offices of the mining companies, the banks, clubs, newspaper offices, hotels and shops, the majority being handsome stone or brick buildings, while the survival of some wooden shanties and corrugated iron buildings recalls the early character of the town.

The Transvaal university college, founded in 1904 as the technical institute (the change of title being made in 1906), provides full courses in science, mining, engineering and law.

By 1892 the leading mines had proved their dividend-earning capacity, and in 1895 there was a great "boom" in the shares of the mining companies.

Since 1887 the management of the town had been entrusted to a nominated sanitary board, under the chairmanship of the mining commissioner appointed by the South African Republic. In 1890 elected members had been admitted to this board, but at the end of 1897 an elective stadsraad (town council) was constituted, though its functions were strictly limited.

There was a great development in the mining industry during 18 971898 and 1899, thei value of the gold extracted in 1898 exceeding £15,000,000, but the political situation grew worse, and in September 1899, owing to the imminence of war between the Transvaal and Great Britain, the majority of the Uitlanders fled from the city.

This decrease was largely caused by the practical suspension for many years of the hydraulic mining operations, in preparation for which millions of dollars had been expended in deep tunnels, flumes, &c., and the active continuance of which might have been expected to yield some £2,000,000 of gold annually.

On the other hand, the progressive reduction of mining and metallurgical costs effected by improved transportation and machinery, and the use of high explosives, compressed air, electric-power transmission, &c., resulted in California (as elsewhere) in a notable revival of deep mining.

Not only is vein-material formerly regarded as unremunerative now extracted at a profit, but in many instances increased gold-values have been encountered below zones of relative barrenness, and operators have been encouraged to make costly preparations for really deep mining - more than 3000 ft.

Of this increase, a considerable part was derived from gold-quartz mining, though much was also obtained as a by-product in the working of the ores of other metals.

By far the most important addition to the Australasian product has come fromWestAustralia,which began its production in 1887 - about the time of the inception of mining at Witwatersrand ("the Rand") in South Africa-and by continuous increase, which assumed large proportions towards the close of the 19th century, was £6,426,000 in 1899, £6,179,000 in 1900, and L8,212,000 in 1905.

So certain is the ore-bearing formation that engineers in estimating its auriferous contents feel justified in assuming, as a factor in their calculations, a vertical extension limited only by the lowest depths at which mining is feasible.

In alluvial deposits the richest ground is usually found in contact with the "bed rock"; and, when the overlying cover of gravel is very thick, or, as sometimes happens, when the older gravel is covered with a flow of basalt, regular mining by shafts and levels, as in what are known as tunnel-claims, may be required to reach the auriferous ground.

Hydraulic mining has for the most part been confined to the country of its invention, California, and the western territories of America, where the conditions favourable for its use are more fully developed than elsewhere - notably the presence of thick banks of gravel that cannot be utilized by other methods, and abundance of water, even though considerable work may be required at times to make it available.

Gold dredging is treated by Captain C. C. Longridge in Gold Dredging, and hydraulic mining is discussed by the same author in his Hydraulic Mining.

Although the state is supposed to have several of the minerals found in this part of Mexico (silver, cinnabar, iron, lead, gold, petroleum and coal), its mining industries continue undeveloped and neglected.

It has important iron and steel works and iron foundries, at which armour-plates, guns and projectiles are made for the Italian navy, also steel castings, machinery and rails, a royal arms factory, and lignite mining.

The mining of these, together with blast furnaces and engineering works, occupies the large industrial population.

Mining is likewise an important industry.

He was educated at the Kreuzschule in Dresden and entered at the age of seventeen the mining academy at Freiburg in Saxony, where he remained two years.

Another very important industry is the manufacture of dynamite and other explosives at Baracaldo, closely connected with the mining interests.

The mining and industrial interests of Biscay were very materially assisted by the quick and important development of means of communication of every kind.

Columbia is in a fine farming region; is engaged extensively in the mining and shipping of phosphates; has an important trade in live-stock, especially mules; manufactures cotton, lumber, flour, bricks, pumps and woollen goods; and has marble and stone works.

Stonehouse (pop. 2961), a mining and weaving town about 4 m.

Eisleben has long been the centre of an important mining district (Luther was a miner's son), the principal products being silver and copper.

It possesses smelting works and a school of mining.

In mining, a "gouge" is the layer of soft rock or earth sometimes found in each side of a vein of coal or ore, which the miner can scoop out with his pick, and thus attack the vein more easily from the side.

In the other chief industrial region of Germany, in Saxony, Zwickau and Lugau, are important mining centres.

Another kind of application of machinery to coal mining is that of Messrs Bidder & Jones, which is intended to replace the use of blasting for bringing down the coal.

This corps rendered invaluable service at the exploring and rescue operations after the explosion at Courrieres in March 1906, the most disastrous mining accident on record, when 110o miners were killed.

The drawing or winding of the coal from the pit bottom to the surface is one of the most important operations in coal mining, and probably the department in which winding mechanical appliances have been brought to the highest state of development.

With the increased activity of working characteristic of modern coal mining, the depth of the mines has rapidly increased, and at the present time the level of 4000 ft., formerly assumed as the possible limit for working, has been nearly attained.

Current progress in mining and other matters connected with coal can best be followed by consulting the abstracts and bibliographical lists of memoirs on these subjects that have appeared in the technical journals of the world contained in the Journal of the Institute of Mining Engineers and that of the Iron and Steel Institute.

Waldenburg lies in the centre of the productive coal district of the Waldenburger Gebirge, a branch of the Sudetic chain, and its inhabitants are largely occupied in the mining industry.

Huancavelica was founded by Viceroy Francisco de Toledo in 1572 as a mining town, and mining continues to be the principal occupation of its inhabitants.

The principal industry is mining for silver and quicksilver.

Mining began in 1905.

Numerous companies are engaged in developing the resources of the country by trading, planting and mining.

From 1890 to 1903 this company was in possession of extensive mining, railway, banking and coining rights, but in the last-named year, by agreement with the German government, it became a land company purely.

European industries include gold mining, in which 500 miners, besides natives, are engaged (chiefly in the Louisiade Archipelago), and the beche de mer and pearl-shell fisheries, which were formerly more productive than at present.

Salt is also found in large quantities; but mining and quarrying are not practised on a large scale; only lead, lignite and asphalt being worked.

In that year the total value of the minerals and mining products of the state was $5,9 2 5,949.

Among other institutions are the new post office, begun in 1902 and finished in 1907; the Mineria, occupied by the schools of mining and engineering; the military school, occupying a part of the castle of Chapultepec; the Iturbide palace, now occupied as a hotel; the Iturbide theatre, occupied by the chamber of deputies, for which a new legislative palace to cost 2,500,000 pesos was under construction in 1909; the new palace of justice; the old mint, dating from 1537; the new penitentiary, completed in 190o; the Panteon, with its monuments to the most celebrated Mexicans; the new general hospital; the jockey club on Plaza Guardiola, a new university (1910) and new school edifices of modern design.

In the former act he embodied a provision regulating and giving authority to the peculiar customs, usages, and regulations voluntarily adopted by the miners in various districts of the state for the adjudication of disputed mining claims. This, as Judge Field truly says, "was the foundation of the jurisprudence respecting mines in the country," having greatly influenced legislation upon this subject in other states and in the Congress of the United States.

He had taught his child to whistle, dined with his servants, talked of "worldly things such as baking, brewing, enclosing, ploughing and mining," preferred walking to riding, and denounced the debasement of the coinage.

In order to get a practical knowledge of mining he worked for a few months as a miner at the Wiethe colliery.

He then, in 1889, attended a course of instruction at the Academy of Mining in Berlin.

He was a director of many of the greatest industrial and mining companies of Westphalia, the Rhineland and Luxemburg.

It is the centre of the mining district of Upper Silesia, and its population is mainly engaged in such operations and in iron and zinc smelting.

Phosphate mining began in South Carolina in 1868, and for twenty years that state was the principal producer.

In 1900 mining for phosphates was commenced in Arkansas.

It is therefore a sparsely settled region with lumbering for one of the leading industries, though there is some mining, as of iron.

In 1750 the mining of iron ore was begun near Monroe, Orange county.

From 1880 to 1885 the first brines were obtained in Wyoming and Genesee counties by boring deep wells into beds of rock salt, and in 1885 the mining of the extensive deposits of rock salt in Livingston county was begun.

Graphite is widely distributed in the Adirondack region, but the mining of it is confined for the most part to Essex and Warren counties; in 1908 the output was 1,932,000 lb.

The Devonian system is well exposed in the Reef ton mining field.

For many years the surface alluvial mining in South Island became less and less profitable.

Excellent as the quality of the best New Zealand coal is, the cost of mining and shipping it prevents the growth of any considerable export trade.

Pastoral and mining enterprise, however, could not save the settlers from severe depression in the years 1867 to 1871.

In 1901 the government of the colony began the granting of mining concessions, in which British capital was largely invested.