Has-been Sentence Examples
Nothing has been the same.
The house has been unbearably lonely without you.
This has been hard for you, as well.
Nothing has been going on that you wouldn't be welcome to watch.
Russie has been keeping secrets from you.
Daddy has been sick.
All the good stuff here has been dug out already.
I don't know, but his gun has been fired since it was last cleaned.
According to Martha, no one has been near that mine in years.
No other woman has been able to resist me.
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Tin has been manufactured since 1892.
Iliana has been a favorite among them.
His family has been very understanding.
Denton has been asking where you are.
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My goal has been to enjoy what I have left then …die.
Tonight has been an education for me.
My phone has been off.
New, disease resistant trees are bringing back the splendor of what has been called one of the prettiest towns in New England.
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I think that possibility has been eliminated.
That young man has been in the water fight for years.
Someone has been on the porch.
Ne'Rin has been talking to his father, A'Ran.
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This courtship has been going on too long and you're getting bored.
Your father has been worried because you haven't called in a week.
This Volt-Wheel has been around a half dozen years.
Most everyone has been evac'd by the state.
Someone has been visiting Alex at the hospital almost every day.
If it's hereditary, then the mutation has been hidden from us for, like, maybe even hundreds of thousands of years.
My dearest Joshua has been absent for near a week now, bound to the duties of his calling, and those of his wife who is much involved in the charities of our city.
If you loved her enough to destroy the world for her, then you know the pain Kris has been through twice. Hell cannot hold a candle to that kind of pain.
It has been justly observed by many that this continuous cyclical movement entirely excludes the progress of humanity towards a better future.
Shkiipetar has been variously interpreted.
When reason rises to the conception of universal order, when actions are submitted, by the exercise of a sympathy working necessarily and intuitively to the idea of the universal order, the good has been reached, the true good, good in itself, absolute good.
Fabian was martyred during the persecution under the emperor Decius, his death taking place on the 10th of January 250, and was buried in the catacomb of Calixtus, where a memorial has been found.
The watercress blocks the rivers of New Zealand into which it has been introduced from Europe.
Charles here has been offered up by Jonny in exchange for your help for a thirty-day ceasefire.
We think he might be an Ancient, but he.s so weak and his face has been so damaged, we can.t tell.
There has been only war as long as I can remember.
When she found none, she returned to the living room, where the rest of the boxes has been deposited, and searched them.
The heat has been lowered now that the men have left and it is oh so cold as I lay huddled here beneath my thin blankets.
We have been through more together than you could possibly imagine, and through it all Sarah has been my rock, and I hers.
Sarah broke in, "Elisabeth has been telling us about your visit to New Orleans, as well."
Elisabeth has been under pressure from the pack long before meeting you.
Although she has been somewhat elusive, she will now serve my purpose twofold.
Didn't you say your sister has been asking you to visit?
This has been a typical day for me - with the exception of a nice evening out.
One of our chefs has been working to make some since the message came in.
The guest bedroom has been ready for visitors since my daughter died ten years ago.
Not necessarily and Ed never has been until recently.
Katie has been helping me crawl out of yesteryear and Alex is trying to make me less dependent.
Your vengeance has been achieved, and my world saved.
I think he hacked into Ingrid's computer and has been waiting for his chance.
The atomic weight of the element has been determined by analysis.
It has been noticed at Woburn Abbey that the antlers are shed and replaced twice a year.
The above gives some idea of the evidence that has been accumulated in favour of the laws of chemical combination, laws which can be deduced from the atomic theory.
The atomic theory has been of priceless value to chemists, but it has more than once happened in the history of science that a hypothesis, after having been useful in the discovery Present and the co-ordination of knowledge, has been aban- position doned and replaced by one more in harmony with later of the discoveries.
The name, it has been suggested, is identical with Libyan or Libi.
Vico has been generally described as a solitary soul, out of harmony with the spirit of his time and often directly opposed to it.
By his exposition of the political history of the kingdom, based on a study of its laws and institutions and of the legal conflicts between the state and the court of Rome, Pietro Giannone was the initiator of what has been since known as civil history.
On these grounds it has been sought to establish a close relation between Vico and Grotius.
It has been replied that these cycles are similar without being identical, and that, if one might differ from another, the idea of progress was not necessarily excluded by the law of cycles.
The suggestion has been made by Allmann and recently upheld by Schepotieff that Rhabdopleura is related to some of the Graptolites.
The Monongahela has been improved by locks and dams to Fairmont.
Each of the magisterial districts (of which, as has been said, there must be at least three and not more than ten in each county) elects one or two magistrates and constables, and a board of education of three members.
The Supreme Court in 1871 decided in favour of West Virginia, and there has been no further question.
Since 1731 it has been composed of the two towns of Clermont and Montferrand, now connected by a fine avenue of walnut trees and willows, 2 m.
We shall suppose they did it upon great consideration and weighing of the matter, and it would be very strange and very ill if we should disturb and set aside what has been the course for a long series of times and ages."
At La Carlota the Spanish government established a station for the study of the culture of sugar-cane; by the American government this has been converted into a general agricultural experiment station, known as "Government Farm."
Lava streams and other signs of volcanic action abound, but there has been no igneous activity since the Spaniards took possession.
An interval of three years without rain has been known.
The work of fortifying the place has been carried on by the British government, which possesses here a naval hospital, military prison and other necessary institutions.
Since the British occupation Valletta has been a naval and military station of the first importance.
The period of Vansittart's government has been truly described as "the most revolting page of our Indian history."
By arrangement with the Chinese government a branch of the Imperial maritime customs has been established there for the collection of duties upon goods coming from or going to the interior, in accordance with the general treaty tariff.
Biagio has been built, is uncertain.'
A village of the Byzantine period has been explored at Balatizzo, immediately to the south of the modern town (Notizie degli Scavi, 1900, 511-520).
It will be sufficient to describe those forms with which the most important work has been done, or which have survived the tests of time and experience.
With the Cape micrometer a systematic difference has been found in the coincidence point for head above and head below amounting to o"-14.
The problem has been how to accomplish this work with the minimum of labour consistent with the desired accuracy.
Thus a latent image of the " reseau-lines " will be formed on the sensitive plate, and, when the latter has been exposed to the sky in the telescope, we obtain, on development, a negative of the images both of the stars and of the reseau-lines.
The apparatus has been used with complete success at the Royal Observatory, Cape of Good Hope, and at Melbourne, Sydney and Cordoba.
Still more recently the method has been largely employed at the Cape of Good Hope and elsewhere.
In the aeneolithic necropolis of Anghelu Ruju, near Alghero, of 63 skulls, 53 belong to the" Mediterranean " dolico-mesocephalic type and i o to a Eurasian brachycephalic type of Asiatic origin, which has been found in prehistoric tombs of other parts of Europe.
Where rational cultivation has been introduced, it has almost always been by non-Sardinian capitalists.
Though much land previously devoted to grain culture has been planted with vines, the area under wheat, barley, beans and maize is still considerable.
An able paper written by him to the king in support of these principles, on the ground especially of their advantage to trade, has been preserved.
Dryden, while compelled to honour him as an upright judge, overwhelmed his memory with scathing, if venal, satire; and Dryden's satire has been accepted as truth by later historians.
He has been designated the "Restorer of Protestantism in France," and was the organizer of the "Church of the Desert."
The building has been restored in modern times to serve as a court of justice and a prison.
Such a view of existence has been common throughout the history of thought, and especially among physical scientists.
For, as the medieval Portuguese stated, it is merely a generic term for the capital of any considerable chief, and it has been applied even by them to several distinct places.
The interior has been much destroyed by the ravages of gold-seekers and amateur excavators.
Remains of the wild cat occur in English caverns; while from those of Ireland (where the wild species has apparently been unknown during the historic period) have been obtained jaws and teeth which it has been suggested are referable to the Egyptian rather than to the European wild cat.
As to long-haired cats, there appear originally to have been two closely-allied strains, the Angora and the Persian, of which the former has been altogether replaced in western Europe by the latter.
Siamese cats may have the tail either straight or kinked, but whether the latter feature belongs of right to the breed, or has been acquired by crossing with the ordinary black and tabby kink-tailed cats of the country, is not known.
When the office increased in importance the mayors of the palace did not, as has been thought, pursue an identical policy.
A fire without light, compared to the heat which gathers in a haystack when the hay has been stored before it was properly dry - heat, in short, as an agitation of the particles - is the motive cause of the contraction and dilatations of the heart.
The south-eastern portion of the city has been excavated only very partially.
It has been doubted whether Pericles favoured this enterprise, but among its chief promoters were two of his friends, Lampon the soothsayer and Hippodamus the architect.
Pericles' home policy has been much debated since ancient times.
It has been traced certainly to the 13th, and conjecturally to the 12th century.
Difference of opinion prevails as to the condition of the jack after it has been driven into the ditch.
According to Scottish rules, unless it has been forced clean out of bounds, such a jack is still alive.
From this early astrological use the form of "glory" or "nimbus" has been adapted or inherited under new beliefs.
In two cases, however, it has been found in the absence of appreciable quantities of uranium and thorium compounds, namely in beryl, and in sylvine (potassium chloride).
The density of helium has been determined by Ramsay and Travers as 1.98.
There are valuable forests in the mountainous districts, a part of which has been set aside for preservation under the name of the Luquillo forest reserve.
He destroyed the royal palace by fire, an act which has been variously estimated by historians.
Ostensibly a solemn revenge for the burning of Greek temples by Xerxes, it has been justified as a symbolical act calculated to impress usefully the imagination of the East, and condemned as a senseless and vainglorious work of destruction.
That to fit the actions and distances covered by Alexander into such a scheme, assuming that he went by Seistan and Kandahar, would involve physical impossibilities has been pointed out by Count Yorck v.
The natural basis for a standard musical pitch is the voice, particularly the male voice, which has been of greater importance historically.
The early history of the territory comprised within the district of Dharwar has been to a certain extent reconstructed from the inscription slabs and memorial stones which abound there.
He did not, however, as has been supposed, spend the best years of his manhood abroad, for he was certainly at home in 1571, when the preliminaries of his marriage were arranged at Merchiston; and in 1572 he married Elizabeth, daughter of Sir James Stirling of Keir.
The fiction of Belisarius wandering as a blind beggar through the streets of Constantinople, which has been adopted by Marmontel in his Belisaire, and by various painters and poets, is first heard of in the 10th century.
At Sydney, the average rainfall, since observations were commenced, has been 50 in.
The first choir was burned down in 1213, but was rebuilt in 1242 at the same time as the transept, and is a superb specimen of pointed Gothic. There are five towers with spires, which give the outside an impressive appearance, and much has been done towards removing the squalid buildings that formerly concealed the cathedral.
The ship is then stopped, and the cable gradually hove up towards the surface; but in deep water, unless it has been caught near a loose end, the cable will break on the grapnel before it reaches the surface, as the catenary strain on the bight will be greater than it will stand.
Its effect, however, has been comparatively small.
The absorption of these rays implies that the pigment absorbs radiant energy from the sun, and gives us some explanation of its power of constructing the carbohydrates which has been mentioned as the special work of the apparatus.
It has been suggested by several botanists, with considerable plausibility, that the ultra-violet or chemical rays can be absorbed and utilized by the protoplasm without the intervention of any pigment such as chlorophyll.
It has been suggested that synapsis may be connected with the early longitudinal splitting of the thread or with the pairing of the chromosomes, but it is possible that it may be connected with the transference of nucleolar substance to the nuclear thread.
This body has been called a blepharoplast, and in the Pteridophytes, Cycads and Ginkgo it gives rise to the spiral band on which the cilia are formed.
The leaf of the higher plants will be taken as the illustrative case because it is the most plastic of the members, the one, that is, which presents the greatest variety of adaptations, and because it has been most thoroughly studied.
A survey of the vegetable kingdom indicates that evolution has proceeded, on the whole, from the simple to the complex; at the same time, as has been already mentioned, evidence of reduction or degeneration in common.
In spite of the statement that the nature of the organism is the most important factor in variation, the tendency amongst evolutionists has been to take much more account of the influence of external conditions.
Darwins expression the nature of the organism has been interpreted in the preceding paragraph to mean an inherent tendency towards higher organization; that interpretation may now be completed by adding that the organism is susceptible to, and can respond to, the action of external conditions.
The study of existing Algae, that is of plants that have continued to live in water, shows that under these conditions no high degree of organization has been reached, though some of them have attained gigantic dimensions.
This has been done with success and in great detail by Grisebach, whose Vegetation der Erde from this point of view is still unsurpassed.
The Halberstadt organ, about which so much has been written, was, according to Praetorius (Syntagma musicum, Wolffenbi ttel, 1618), built in 1361, and repaired or rebuilt 1495.
Great Britain has been the last to fall in, but the predominance of the low pitch, introduced at Covent Garden Opera since 1880, is assured.
Since the 5th century it has been the seat of an archbishop, who has now fifteen suffragans.
The event showed that he judged the situation rightly - the religious scheme announced by him, though not accepted in all its details, became the dominant policy of the later time, and he has been justly called ' The stricter marriage law is formulated in Lev.
This appears to be an independent form of the vision, which has been brought into connexion with that of i.
The derivation of the word has been much debated.
In modern times it has been more criticized than read.
While the heroism of the Montenegrins has been lauded by writers of all countries, the Albanians - if we except Byron's eulogy of the Suloits - still remain unsung.
In some districts there is a fixed price of blood; at Argyrokastro, for instance, the compensation paid by the homicide to the relatives of his victim is 1200 piastres (about £10), at Khimara 2000 piastres; once the debt has been acquitted amicable relations are restored.
Instruction in the Albanian language is prohibited by the Turkish government for political reasons; a single exception has been made in the case of an American school for girls at Kortcha.
There are two conjugations; the passive formation, now wanting inmost Indo-European languages, has been retained, as in Greek; thus kerko-iy, " I seek," forms kerko-n -em, " I am sought."
Its population was given in 1894 as 135,232, but its area has been largely reduced since then.
Apart from the weighty objections that the Edomites would have frustrated such a recrudescence of the remnant Jews as has been described, it must be remembered that the main stream of Jewish life and thought had been diverted to Babylon.
The name, arising from this unusual sound, has been by metonymy translated into " God's Voice."
In April and May the rivers have opened, the snow has disappeared, and the opportunity has been afforded the farmer of sowing his grain.
The open grate still holds favour in England, though in America and on the continent of Europe it has been superseded by the closed stove.
Heating by warmed air, one of the oldest methods in use, has been much improved by attention to the construction of the apparatus, and if properly installed will give as good effects as it is ossible to obtain.
Bale is also the authority for another assertion that figures in what has been aptly termed the poet's "traditional biography," viz.
Recent criticism has been far more impartial, and almost too much respect has been paid to his attainments, especially in the matter of metre, though Lydgate himself, with offensive lightheartedness, admits his poor craftsmanship.
At the same time there has been a steadily These first three were joined in 1907 under the name of the United Methodist Church.
A few years afterwards he married again, his second wife being Agnes, daughter of Sir James 1 The descent of the first Napier of Merchiston has been traced to "Johan le Naper del Counte de Dunbretan," who was one of those who swore fealty to Edward I.
It has been asserted (by Sir Thomas Urquhart) that the piece of artillery was actually tried upon a plain in Scotland with complete success, a number of sheep and cattle being destroyed.
With respect to the calculating rods, he mentions in the dedication that they had already found so much favour as to be almost in common use, and even to have been carried to foreign countries; and that he has been advised to publish his little work relating to their mechanism and use, lest they should be put forth in some one else's name.
It has been usually supposed that John Napier was buried in St Giles's church, Edinburgh, which was certainly the burialplace of some of the family, but Mark Napier (Memoirs, p. 426) quotes Professor William Wallace, who, writing in 1832, gives strong reasons for believing that he was buried in the old church of St Cuthbert.
It has been stated that Napier's mathematical pursuits led him to dissipate his means.
The Rabdologia attracted more general attention than the logarithms, and as has been mentioned, there were several editions on the Continent.
There seems but little doubt that Napier was the first to make use of a decimal separator, and it is curious that the separator which he used, the point, should be that which has been ultimately adopted, and after a long period of partial disuse.
Aventinus, who has been called the "Bavarian Herodotus," wrote other books of minor importance, and a complete edition of his works was published at Munich (188'- 1886).
As has been said of another thinker, he was " one of those deeply religious men who, when crude theological notions are being revised and called in question seek to put new life into theology by wider and more humane ideas."
Much has been done of late years to make these subordinate standards of reformed doctrine more generally known.
The form of worship associated with Presbyterianism has been marked by extreme simplicity.
Judged in other ways, however, the influence of the assembly's labours has been very great.
The danger in this direction is that when Presbyterianism has been modified far enough to suit the English taste it may be found less acceptable to its more stalwart supporters from beyond the Tweed.
She has been a zealous supporter of Irish national education, which is theoretically "united secular and separate religious instruction."
Its polity has been of gradual growth, and still retains some features peculiar to itself.
From New England, as has been seen, Puritan settlers established Presbyterian churches (or churches which immediately became Presbyterian) in Long Island, on New Jersey, and in South Carolina; but the Puritans who remained in New England usually established Congregational churches.
The bridge by which the Via Aemilia crossed the river Parma, from which it probably takes its name, is still preserved, but has been much altered.
The drying-up process has been comparatively rapid since the middle of the 19th century, a town which in 1850 was on the southern margin of the lake being in 1905 over 20 m.
In the east, the country of Kanem, the desiccation has been most marked.
In 1870 the lake rose to an exceptional height, but since then, save in 1897, there has been only the normal seasonal rise.
Another disturbing influence has been the high protective tariffs, adopted during the closing years of the century, which increased the costs of living more rapidly than the wages for labour, and compelled thousands of immigrants to seek employment elsewhere.
Argentina has been a member of the Postal Union since 1878.
There has been but slight improvement since that date.
Dairy-farming is making rapid strides, and the development of sheep-farming has been remarkable.
The guia tax on the transport of stock from one province to another, which has been declared unconstitutional in the courts, is still enforced, and is a vexatious tax upon the stock-raiser, while the consumption, or octroi, tax in Buenos Aires and other cities is a heavy burden upon small producers.
Secular education has been vigorously opposed by strict churchmen, and efforts have been made to maintain separate schools under church control.
Shipping has been fostered by paying bounties for vessels constructed in France and sailing under the French flag, and by reserving the coasting trade, traffic between France and Algeria, &c., to French vessels.
It is only from the middle of the I9th century that close attention has been.
There were, however, but few prisons in France adapted for the cellular system, and the process of reconstruction has been slow, In 1898 the old Paris prisons of Grande-Roquette, Saint-Plagie and Mazas were demolished, and to replace them a large prison with 1500 cells was erected at Fresnes-ls-Rungis.
In all the colonies the judicature has been rendered independent of the executive.
The growth of the two cities has been rapid since 1900.
The population is about 2200, the natives being Polynesian, though their language has been classified as Melanesian.
As the House would, at this ratio, have become unmanageably large, the ratio, which is first settled by Congress before apportionment, has been raised after each census, as will be seen from the accompanying table.
A governor has been appointed since 1885, some importance being foreseen for the islands in connexion with the cutting of the Panama canal, as the group lies on the route to Australia opened up by that scheme.
It has been growing in repute as a health resort; the only considerable industry is weaving.
The one case in which jurisdiction has been given to it by statute is to enforce forfeitures under the statute of 1538.
The head of a white goat obtained in 1900 from the mountains at the mouth of Copper river, opposite Kyak Island, has been described as a species apart.
In elevating the marsupials to the rank of a sub-class the name Metatheria has been suggested as the title for the higher grade, with Marsupialia as the designation for the single order by which they are now represented.
In addition to this replacement of a single pair of functional teeth in each jaw, it has been discovered that marsupials possess rudimentary tooth-germs which never cut the gum.
From the number of its cheek-teeth, the banded ant-eater has been regarded as related to some of the primitive Jurassic mammals; but this view is disputed by Mr Bensley, who regards this multiplicity of teeth as a degenerate feature.
The occurrence in the Santa Cruz beds of Patagonia of fossil marsupials allied to the living Caenolestes has been mentioned above.
There seems to have been a replacement of some of these teeth; and it has been suggested that this was of the marsupial type.
All that can be done is to form a continuous account in accord with the ancient histories, and with the original formation of the ground, so far as this has been identified by modern exploration.
But the site which has been already indicated at the N.E.
Since that time, except from 1229 to 12 3 9, and from 124 3 to 1244, the city has been held by the Mahommedans.
The growth has been chiefly towards the north and north-west; but there are large suburbs on the west, and on the southwest near the railway station on the plain of Rephaim.
Little effort has been made to meet the increased sanitary requirements of the larger population and wider inhabited area.
It has been universally admitted that " the palaces " or "the palace " (rd, 3aviXeca) burned down by Alexander are those now in ruins at Takhti Jamshid.
After the vigorous reaction has ceased and all the sodium has been used up, the mass is thrown into dilute hydrochloric acid, when the soluble sodium salts go into solution, and the insoluble boron remains as a brown powder, which may by filtered off and dried.
Among his later writings, besides numerous pamphlets on what was known as "the Apocrypha controversy," are a treatise On the Inspiration of Scripture (1828), which has passed through many editions, and a later Exposition of the Epistle to the Romans (1835), which has been frequently reprinted, and has been translated into French and German.
There is no evidence that these days were called shabattu, a word which is rendered by umu nuh libbi, " day of rest of the heart," and has been thought to be the origin of Sabbath.
This work has been largely utilized by Ignae-Acsady in his excellent Gabriel Bethlen and his Court (Hung., Budapest, 1890).
The commerce of the island has been of late years increasing at a rapid rate.
The principal buildings which remain are the church of St John, which is become the principal mosque; the hospital, which has been transformed into public granaries; the palace of the grand master, now the residence of the pasha; and the senate-house, which still contains some marbles and ancient columns.
Its fires are not volcanic, but result from the combustion of coal some distance underground, giving off much smoke and steam; geologists estimate that the burning has been going on for at least 800 years.
The Adelaide, discharging into Adam Bay, has been navigated by large vessels for about 38 m., and small vessels ascend still farther.
As the plains on the Rolling Downs formation are mostly waterless, the discovery of this deep reservoir of water has been of great aid in the development of central Australia.
A theory was therefore propounded that these known types were all derived from a continent which has been named Antarctica.
Just as we have evidence of a former mild climate in the arctic regions, so a similar mild climate has been postulated for Antarctica.
The " leathery turtle," which is herbivorous, and yields abundance of oil, has been caught at sea off the Illawarra coast so large as 9 ft.
The great crocodile of Queensland has been known to attain a length of 30 ft.; there is a smaller one about 6 ft.
So far the mud-fish has been found only in the Mary and the Burnett rivers.
No speculation of hypothesis has been propounded to account satisfactorily for the origin of the Australian flora.
As a step towards such hypothesis it has been noted that the Antarctic, the South African, and the Australian floras have many types in common.
The expansion has been due mainly to the natural increase; that is, by reason of excess of births over deaths.
In the five years 1881-1888 the rate was 8 08 marriages (16.1 persons) per thousand of the population, declining to 6.51 in 1891-1895; in recent years there has been a considerable improvement, and the Australian marriage rate may be quoted as ranging between 6.75 and 7.25.
Religious instruction is not imparted by the state-paid teachers in any state, though in certain states persons duly authorized by the religious organizations are allowed to give religious instruction to children of their own denomination where the parents' consent has been obtained.
From the date of its first discovery, up to the close of 1905, gold to the value of £460,000,000 sterling has been obtained in Australia.
Silver has been discovered in all the states, either alone or in the form of sulphides, antimonial and arsenical ores, chloride, bromide,.
Copper is known to exist in all the states, and has been mined extensively in South Australia, New South Wales, Queensland and.
For a number of years, however, the mine has been suffered to remain untouched, as the deposits originally worked were found to be depleted.
Bismuth is known to exist in all the Australian states, but up to the present time it has been mined for only in three states, viz.
Little, however, has been done to utilize the deposits, the demands of the colonial markets being extremely limited.
The rare element tellurium has been discovered in New South Wales at Bingara and other parts of the northern districts, as well as at Tarana, on the western line, though at present in such minute quantities as would not repay the cost of working.
In New South Wales, in the form of cinnabar, it has been discovered on the Cudgegong river, near Rylstone, and it also occurs at Bingara, Solferino, Yulgilbar and Cooma.
Cobalt occurs in New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia, and efforts have been made in the former state to treat the ore, the metal having a high commercial value; but the market is small, and no attempt has been made up to 1907 to produce it on any large scale.
Chromium has been discovered in Tasmania also.
It has been ascertained from recent explorations that the area of carboniferous formation in that state extends from the Irwin northwards to the Gascoyne river, about 300 m., and probably all the way to the Kimberley district.
The coal has been treated and found to be of good quality, and there are grounds for supposing that there are 250,000,000 tons in the field.
One of the richest has been found at Greta in the Hunter river district; it contains an average thickness of 41 ft.
Black coal has been discovered in Victoria, and about 250,000 tons are now being raised.
Except in the vicinity of cities and townships, however, little use has been made of the abundant deposits of clay.
Asbestos has been found in New South Wales in the Gundagai Bathurst and Broken Hill districts - in the last-mentioned district in considerable quantities.
Many descriptions of gems and gem stones have been discovered in various parts of the Australian states, but systematic search has been made principally for the diamond and the noble opal.
The oriental topaz has been found in New South Wales.
Oriental amethysts also have been found in that state, and the ruby has been found in Queensland, as well as in New South Wales.
The bulk of this indebtedness has been contracted for the purpose of constructing railways, tramways, water-supplies, and other revenue-producing works and services, and it is estimated that only 8% of the total indebtedness can be set down for unproductive services.
Each family, or family group, had a dual organization which has been termed (i) the Social, (2) the Local.
This custom, which has been defined as the invasion of actual marriage by allotting permanent paramours, is confined to a special set of tribes.
He left Batavia on what has been designated by Dutch historians the " Happy Voyage," on the 14th of August 1642.
The bodies of Burke and Wills were recovered and brought to Melbourne for a solemn public funeral, and a noble monument has been erected to their honour.
Taking the states as a whole, agrarian legislation has been the most important subject that has engrossed the attention of their parliaments, and every state has been more or less engaged in tinkering with its land laws.
In Victoria the law has been altered five times, and in Queensland and South Australia seven times.
To the Labour party in that state are admitted only persons who have worked for their living at manual labour, and this qualification of being an actual worker is one that was strongly insisted upon at the formation of the party and strictly adhered to, although the temptation to break away from it and accept as candidates persons of superior education and position has been very great.
They still contain many old and valuable ecclesiastical objects of art, although a great part has been removed to the various monasteries in Moldavia.
The ship's rudder, which was recovered in 1859, has been fashioned into a chair and a table, now in the possession of Lloyd's.
The original name of Palenque has been lost, and its present name is taken from the neighbouring village, Santo Domingo del Palenque.
The origin of his family has been traced back as far as the end of the 14th century.
But when the Panama "scandal" has been forgotten, for centuries to come the traveller in saluting the statue of Ferdinand de Lesseps at the entrance of the Suez Canal will pay homage to one of the most powerful embodiments of the creative genius of the 19th century.
The former Royal Dockyard was made over to the War Office in 1872 and converted into stores, wharves for the loading of troopships, &c. The Royal Artillery Barracks, facing Woolwich Common, originally erected in 1775, has been greatly extended at different times, and consists of six ranges of Brick building, including a church in the Italian Gothic style erected in 1863, a theatre, and a library in connexion with the officers' mess-room.
A statue to his honour has been erected at Maros-Vasarhely, but he lives still more enduringly in the immortal verses of the patriot poet Sandor Petofi, who fell in the fatal action of the 31st of July at Segesvar.
In England materialism has been endemic, so to speak, from Hobbes to the present time, and English materialism is more important perhaps than that of any other country.
Gold is worked with success in Pahang, and has been exploited from time immemorial by the natives of that state and of Kelantan.
Malarial fevers make their appearance in places where the forest has been recently felled, or where the surface earth has been disturbed.
The Malays formerly suffered severely from smallpox epidemics, but in the portion of the peninsula under British rule vaccination has been introduced, and the ravages of the disease no longer assume serious dimensions.
Johor is the only Malay state in the southern portion of the peninsula, the whole of which is within the British sphere, which has been suffered to remain under native rule.
On account of this, it has been suggested that in a forgotten past the Sakai were themselves the fashioners of the stone implements, and certain it is that all tools which have no representatives among the stone kelts are known to the Sakai by obvious corruptions of their Malayan names.
The shafts are placed so close together that in many instances they are divided by only a couple of feet of solid ground, but at their bases a considerable amount of gallery work has been excavated, though it is possible that this was done by miners who came after the people who originally sank the shafts.
The importance of the Malay Peninsula, as has been noted, consisted in the privilege which its locality conferred upon it of being the distributing centre of the spices brought thither from the Moluccas en route for India and Europe.
The desire to obtain the monopoly of the spice trade has been a potent force in the fashioning of Asiatic history.
From the traces of a Roman road between Nantwich and Middlewich, and the various Roman remains that have been found in the neighbourhood, it has been conjectured that Nantwich was a salttown in Roman times, but of this there is no conclusive evidence.
It has been quarried since 1785; marble monuments were first manufactured about 1808; and at South Dorset in 1818 marble seems first to have been sawed in blocks, the earlier method having been chiselling.
Only less important and only less early to be established in Vermont was the quarrying of granite, which began in 1812, but which has been developed chiefly since 1880, largely by means of the building of "granite railroads" which connect each quarry with a main railway line - a means of transportation as important as the logging railways of the Western states and of Canada.
Vermont has been governed under the constitution of 1777, that of 1786 and that of 1793, with twentyeight amendments, of which the first was adopted in 1828, the second to thirteenth in 1836, the fourteenth to twenty-third in 1850, the twenty-fourth, twenty-fifth and twenty-sixth in 1870, and the twenty-seventh and twenty-eighth in 1883.
In presidential campaigns the state has been Federalist, 1792-1800; Democratic-Republican, 1804-1820; Adams-Republican, 1824-1828; Anti-Masonic, 1832; Whig, 1836-1852; and Republican since 1856.
The wool-growing industry has been almost entirely destroyed by the competition of Australia and the West, and the people are now engaged mainly in dairy-farming, timbering, graniteand marble-quarrying, and in keeping summer boarders.
But Einstein's work has been by no means confined to such abstract questions.
The constitution of fulminic acid has been investigated by many experimenters, but apparently without definitive results.
It has been general since the 9th century.
It has been sometimes misspelt "Tapacolo," as by C. Darwin, who gave (Journal of Researches, chap. xii.) a brief but entertaining account of the habits of this bird and its relative, Hylactes megapodius, called by the Chilenos "El Turco."
In its construction an attempt has been made to produce a building suitable for Christian worship whilst the architecture is Moorish in style.
Much damage has been done by earthquakes from time to time.
An important product of oak woods is the bark that from a remote period has been the chief tanning material of Europe.
The bark of young oak branches has been employed in medicine from the days of Dioscorides, but is not used in modern practice.
A bitter principle to which the name of quercin has been applied by Gerber, its discoverer, has also been detected in the acorn of the common oak; the nutritive portion seems chiefly a form of starch.
A spirit has been distilled from acorns in process of germination, when the saccharine principle is most abundant.
His mother was descended from a family named Styward in Norfolk, which was not, however, connected in any way, as has been often asserted, with the royal house of Stuart.
Worcester, his crowning victory, has been indicated by a German critic as the prototype of Sedan.
It has been said that his battles were decided by shock action; the real emphasis should be laid upon the word "decided."
Cromwell's personal character has been inevitably the subject of unceasing controversy.
In particular that conception which regarded "ambition" as the guiding motive in his career has been dispelled by a more intimate and accurate knowledge of his life; this shows him to have been very little the creator of his own career, which was largely the result of circumstances outside his control, the influence of past events and of the actions of others, the pressure of the national will, the natural superiority of his own genius.
Competent critics to-day recognize that such a view is impossible; and it has been suggested with Xxvii.
It has been suggested that we here have recorded the utterances of glossolalists.
More recently, the area has been further explored by the German expedition in the ss.
About the facts of his life there has been much difference of opinion.
Since the pacification of the Sudan by the British (1886-1889) there has been some revival of trade between Gondar and the regions of the Blue Nile.
A good deal of what passes under his name has been wrongly attributed to him.
This collection, which has been widely read, is a pendant to the Historia Lausiaca of Palladius and the monkish tales of Sozomen.
The church history has been published frequently in connexion with the histories of Socrates, Sozomen and others, e.g.
The latter play was 1 Some doubt has been expressed as to whether the eggs are extruded or hatched within the body.
That there are many inconsistencies and signs of carelessness in his work has been proved in detail by Langen.
Shakespeare's Taming of the Shrew has been influenced in several respects (including the names Tranio and Grumio) by the Mostellaria.
A judicial system has been instituted to which natives as well as Europeans are amenable.
On the whole the history of the colony has been one of peaceful progress, interrupted now and again, as in 1903, by severe droughts.
Whitstable has been famous for its oyster beds from time immemorial.
A violent gust strikes the plate, which is driven back and carried by its own momentum far past the position in which a steady wind of the same force would place it; by the time the motion has reached the pen it has been greatly exaggerated by the springiness of the connexion, and not only is the plate itself driven too far back, but also its position is wrongly recorded by the pen; the combined errors act the same way, and more than double the real maximum pressure may be indicated on the chart.
In the preface he states the position that "whenever, then, two gases are allowed to mix without the performance of work, there is dissipation of energy, and an opportunity of doing work at the expense of low temperature heat has been for ever lost."
Fichte's general views on philosophy seem to have changed considerably as he advanced in years, and his influence has been impaired by certain inconsistencies and an appearance of eclecticism, which is strengthened by his predominantly historical treatment of problems, his desire to include divergent systems within his own, and his conciliatory tone.
The development of pianoforte technique since Beethoven has been in some ways even more revolutionizing than that of the brass instruments; and pianoforte instrumentation, both in solo and in chamber-music, is a study for a lifetime.
A nervous system has been shown to exist in many species, and consists of a perioesophageal ring giving off usually six nerves which run forwards and backwards along the lateral and median lines; these are connected by numerous fine, circular threads in the sub-cuticle.
The female is viviparous, and the young, which, unlike the parent, are provided with a long tail, live free in water; it was formerly believed from the frequency with which the legs and feet were attacked by this parasite that the embryo entered the skin directly from the water, but it has been shown by Fedschenko, and confirmed by Manson, Leiper and others, that the larva bores its way into the body of a Cyclops and there undergoes further development.
This simple type of life-history has been experimentally proved by Leuckart to be characteristic of Trichocephalus affinis, Oxyuris ambigua and other species.
Much attention has been paid to the improvement of the mechanical details of the lifting and other motions of cranes, and in important installations the gearing is now usually made of cast steel.
Ore of cobalt is obtained in no other locality in India, and although zinc blende has been found elsewhere it is known to have been extracted only in this province.
Since then the political history of Rajputana has been comparatively uneventful.
The authorship of an anonymous work, Squitinio della libertd Veneta, published at Mirandola in 1612, has been attributed to him.
After the cable has been again subjected to the proper electrical tests and found to be in perfect condition, the ship is taken to the place where the shore end is to be landed.
Owing to the experience gained with many thousands of miles of cable in all depths and under varying conditions of weather and climate, the risk, and consequently the cost, of laying has been greatly reduced.
When this has been done an electrical test is applied, and if the original fracture is between ship and shore the heaving in of cable will continue until the end comes on board.
After the " final splice," as it is termed, between these ends has been made, the bight, made fast to a slip rope, is lowered overboard, the slip rope cut, and the cable allowed to sink by its own weight to its resting-place on the sea bed.
As an ordinary instance, it has been stated that the cost of repairing the Direct United States cable up to 1900 from its submergence in 1874 averaged £8000 per annum.
In depths beyond the reach of wave motion, and apart from suspension across a submarine gully, which will sooner or later result in a rupture of the cable, the most frequent cause of interruption is seismic or other shifting of the ocean bed, while in shallower waters and near the shore the dragging of anchors or 40 fishing trawls has been mostly responsible.
Since by international agreement the wilful damage of a cable has been constituted a criminal offence, and the cable companies have avoided crossing the fishing banks, or have adopted the wise policy of refunding the value of anchors lost on their cables, the number of such fractures has greatly diminished.
At offices where the work is heavier than can be dealt with by the A B C apparatus, the " Single Needle " instrument has been very largely employed; it has the advantage of slight Single liability to derangement, and of requiring very little adjustment.
This form of relay is largely used, but in Great Britain it has been entirely .flisplaced by the form shown in fig.
When a combination of signals has been received and the armatures have taken up their respective positions corresponding to the transmitting keyboard, certain mechanism in the receiver translates the position of the five armatures into a mechanical movement which lifts the paper tape against a type-wheel and prints the corresponding letter.
One of the longest circuits upon which it has been successfully worked is that between St Petersburg and Omsk, a distance of approximately 2400 miles of iron wire, with three repeating stations.
The peculiar construction of AC has been already referred to.
In what is known as the " hybrid " form of recorder the permanent magnets are provided with windings of insulated copper wire; the object of these windings is to provide a means of " refreshing " the magnets by means of a strong current temporarily sent through the coils when required, as it has been found that, owing to magnetic leakage and other causes, the magnets tend to lose their power, especially in hot climates.
Another reason assigned by the committee appointed by the Treasury in 1875 " to investigate the causes of the increased cost of the telegraphic service since the acquisition of the telegraphs by the state " is the loss on the business of transmitting Press messages, which has been estimated as at least £300,000 a year.
A further cause has been competition offered by the telephone service, but against this the Post Office has received royalties from telephone companies and revenue from trunk telephone lines.
Evershed, and has been practically adopted at Lavernock and Flat Holme.
Such a bolometer receiver has been used by C. Tissot (Comptes rendus, 1904, 137, p. 846) and others as a receiver in electric wave telegraphy.
Very valuable work in devising forms of antennae for directive radio-telegraphy has been done by MM.
The so-called musical arc of Duddell has been the subject of considerable investigation, and physicists are not entirely in accordance as to the true explanation of the mode of production of the oscillations.
Poulsen's method of producing continuous or undamped electrical waves has been applied by him in radio-telegraphy.
An immense mass of information has been gathered on the scientific processes which are involved in electric wave telegraphy.
It also forms amalgams with mercury, and on this account has been employed in dentistry for the purpose of stopping (or filling) teeth.
Cadmium sulphate, CdSO 4, is known in several hydrated forms; being deposited, on spontaneous evaporation of a concentrated aqueous solution, in the form of large monosymmetric crystals of composition 3CdSO 4.8H 2 O, whilst a boiling saturated solution, to which concentrated sulphuric acid has been added, deposits crystals of composition CdSO 4 4H 2 0.
Another and somewhat similar example is furnished by what has been variously designated as the " string," toy," " lovers," and " mechanical " telephone.
The chief difficulty with this transmitter, and with various others of later date based upon it, has been the frequent packing of the carbon granules, which renders the instrument inoperative.
It is not practicable to connect each subscriber directly to all the others, hence a system of exchanges has been adopted.
The fundamental principle of the magneto system has been described in connexion with the " Standard board."
The " call-wire " system has been used to some extent, but it is now obsolete.
An improvement in this respect has been effected by the insertion of condensers in the cord circuits, coupled with the use of two sets of impedance coils, one set on each.
Several schemes embodying this idea have been developed, and one of them has been put into extensive operation.
This form of cable has been superseded by a type with paper insulation.
The cable is then placed in an oven, and, after all moisture has been driven off, it is passed through a lead press whence it emerges protected by a continuous lead pipe.
Speech has been habitually transmitted for business purposes over a distance of 1542.3 m., viz., over the lines of the American Telegraph and Telephone Company from Omaha to Boston.
Conversation has been carried on over 2200 m.
As no practical process of telephone relaying has been devised, it is extremely important that the character of the line should be such as to favour the preservation of the strength and form of the telephone current.
Many circuits have been " loaded " in the manner proposed by Pupin during recent years, especially in underground cables, and it has been found in practice that the transmission value of these when loaded is approximately from three to four times their value unloaded.
The problem, however, of constructing a deep-sea cable satisfactorily, with suitable inductance coils inserted at short distances apart, is a difficult one, and one which it cannot be said has been solved.
For subscribers who desire the telephone for occasional use, the party-line system has been devised, whereby several telephones are connected to one line leading to the exchange.
A reduction has been made in the charges for trunk calls at night, and calls for single periods of three minutes are allowed at half the ordinary rates between 7 p.m.
In those cases in which the company's licence has been extended beyond 1911 (Glasgow to 1913, Swansea to 1926, Brighton to 1926 and Portsmouth to 1926) the Postmaster-General will buy the unexpired licence with allowance for goodwill.
The average cost of constructing an exchange circuit in the metropolitan area (including the installation of telephone instruments and of exchange apparatus, but excluding the provision of spare plant) has been £33.
It has been proved that the secretion contains a digestive ferment capable of rendering proteid matter soluble.
On the latter hypothesis it has been generally assumed that the wild camels are the descendants of droves of the domesticated breed which escaped when certain central Asian cities were overwhelmed by sand-storms. This theory, according to Professor Leche, is rendered improbable by Dr Sven Hedin's observations on the habits and mode of life of the wild camel.
This is most clearly marked on the side of the Apennines, where the great Aemilian Way, which has been the high road from the time of the Romans to our own, preserves an unbroken straight line from Rimini to Piacenza, a distance of more than 150 m., during which the underfalls of the mountains continually approach it on the left, without once crossing the line of road.
The Apennines (q.v.), as has been already mentioned, here traverse the whole breadth of Italy, cutting off the peninsula properly so termed from the broader mass of Northern Italy by a continuous barrier of considerable breadth, though of far inferior elevation to that of the Alps The Ligurian Apennines may be considered as taking their rise in the neighborhood of Savona, where a pass of very moderate elevation connects them with the Maritime Alps, of which they are in fact only a continuation.
The eucalyptus is of quite modern introduction; it has been extensively planted in malarious districts.
It has been defined as apparently a kind of collective madness.
The vine has been attacked by the Oidium Tuckeri, the Phylloxera vastatrix and the Peronospora viticola, which in rapid succession wrought great havoc in Italian vineyards.
There has been some improvement, however, while some of the heavier white wines, noticeably the Marsala of Sicily, have excellent keeping qualities.
This has been encouraged by government prizes since 1904.
Italy has only unimportant lignite and anthracite mines, but water power is abundant and has been largely applied to industry, especially in generating electricity.
Great progress has been made in the manufacture of machinery; locomotives, railway carriages, electric tram-cars, &c., and machinery of all kinds, are now largely made in Italy itself, especially in the north and in the neighborhood of Naples.
The number has been reduced to less than half since 1897 by the suppression of smaller factories, while the production has increased from 47,690 millions to 59,741 millions.
The rise of the industry has been favored by protective tariffs and by a system of excise which allows a considerable premium to manufacturers.
Much has been done in keeping out the insects by fine wire netting placed on the windows and the doors of houses, especially in the railwaymens cottages.
Women are, as a rule, paid less than men, and though their wages have also increased, the rise has been slighter than in the case of men.
It thus appears that co-operation flourishes most in the districts in which the mezzadria system has been prevalent.
Since 1899 there has been a steady increase both in imports and exports.
As might be expected, progress has been most rapid wherever education, at the moment of national unification, was most widely diffused.
The rate of increase in the public state-supported schools has been much greater than in the private schools.
The law of 1877 rendering education compulsory for children between six and nine years of age has been the principal cause of the spread of elementary education.
The greatest increase has taken place in technical educarion, where it has been much more rapid than in classical education.
The materiel of the Italian navy has been completely transformed, especially in Virtue of the bill of the 31st of March 1875.
The income of 60,741,418 in 1881 rose in 1899-1900 to 69,917,126; while the expenditure increased from 58,705,929 in 1881 to 69,708,706 in 1899-1900, an increase of 9,175,708 in income and 11,002,777 in expenditure, while there has been a still further increase since, the figures for 1905-1906 showing (excluding items which figure on both sides of the account) an increase of 8,766,995 in income and 5,434,560 in expenditure over 1899-1900.
The buildings impost has been assessed since 1866 upon the basis of 12.50% of taxable revenue.
The most important change introduced by the new law has been the creation in every province of a provincial administrative junta entrusted with the supervision of communal administrations, a function previously discharged by the provincial deputation.
No satisfactory collection has been made of the Celtic inscriptions of Cisalpine Gaul, though many are scattered about in different museums. For our present purpose it is important to note that the archaeological stratification in deposits like those of Bologna shows that the Gallic period supervened upon the Etruscan.
A vast amount of material on the Risorgimenti has been published both in Italy and abroad as well as numeron works of a literary and critical nature.
The question whether this surplus was real or only apparent has been much debated, but t,here is no reason to doubt its substantial reality.
C. Licinius Macer (died 66), who has been called the last of the annalists, wrote a voluminous work, which, although he paid great attention to the study of his authorities, was too rhetorical, and exaggerated the achievements of his own family.
In one subdivision of the leeches, the Gnathobdellidae, the mouth has three chitinous jaws which produce a triangular bite, though the action has been described as like that of a circular saw.
The leech has been used in medicine from remote antiquity as a moderate blood-letter; and it is still so used, though more rarely than formerly.
The morality of this course has been much canvassed, though it seems really to involve nothing more than an express declaration of what the two oaths implied.
Now, in considering the body of writings connected with this Veda, we are at once confronted by the fact that there are two different schools, an older and a younger one, in which the traditional body of ritualistic matter has been treated in a very different way.
Whilst the Soma-sacrifice has been thus developed by the Brahmanas in an extraordinary degree, its essential identity with the Avestan Haoma-cult shows that its origin goes back at all events to the Indo-Iranian period.
These speculations may be said to have formed the foundation on which the theory of the sacrifice, as propounded in the Brahmanas, has been reared.
Raynaudus's authorities, in favour of the recognition of a natural theology and against it, do not, so far as the present writer has been able to consult them, use the expression.
In Christian theology, much labour has been spent upon vindicating man's freedom against God's intrusion, or upon blotting out human power in order to leave room for the divine.
In point of fact, as we look to history, we find that theism has been much simplified and cut down.
First of all, attention has been concentrated upon God.
Herbert Spencer finds that the modern individual has intuitions of duty which represent the inherited experience of what has been good for the race in the past.
It has been truly observed' that the lineaments of Cicero intuitionalism are very clear in him.
Later theists may be grouped according as their thought has been remoulded or not by the influences of Kant.
In this instance it may happen that the work of intelligence has only been mimicked in nature by blind forces which have accidentally produced organic life; and Mill is disposed to hold that if the evolution of species should be clearly established as due to natural law - if there has been no creation by special interposition - the argument falls to the ground and theism (apparently) is lost.
The theistic writers are usually intuitionalists; but it has been urged above that a fruitful study of theism must in each case inquire what is the writer's philosophical basis.
James Ward's masterly criticism of Herbert Spencer (Naturalism and Agnosticism) has been mentioned above.
It does not, as has been sometimes asserted, in any way establish a representative system, as this is understood to-day.
Of imported animals, cattle, goats, asses and dogs thrive well, ponies and horses indifferently, and sheep badly, though some success has been achieved in breeding them.
The traditional charge of cannibalism has been very persistent; but it is entirely denied by the islanders themselves, and is now and probably always has been untrue.
It has been shown above that polyps are budded only from polyps and that the medusae may be budded either from polyps or from medusae.
It has been maintained that the gonads of Hydra represent sporosacs or gonophores greatly reduced, with the last traces of medusoid structure completely obliterated.
The budding of this medusa has been worked out in detail by Chun (Hydrozoa, [1]), to whom the reader must be referred for the interesting laws of budding regulating the sequence and order of formation of the buds.
This must not be taken to mean, however, that the medusa is derived from a sessile polyp; it must be regarded as a direct modification of the more ancient free actinula form, without primitively any intervening polyp-stage, such as has been introduced secondarily into the development of the Leptolinae and represents 'a revival, so to speak, of an ancestral form or larval stage, which has taken on a special role in the economy of the species.
The phylogenetic position of this genus has been discussed above.
It has been asserted that the tentaculocysts are entirely ectodermal and that either the family should be placed amongst the Leptomedusae, or should form, together with certain Leptomedusae, an entirely distinct order.
Since then it has been discovered in other botanic gardens in various parts of Europe, its two most recent appearances being at Lyons (1901) and Munich (1905), occurring always in tanks in which the Victoria regia is cultivated, a fact which indicates that tropical South America is its original habitat.
In the same tanks a small hydroid, very similar to Microhydra, has been found, which bears medusa-buds and is probably the stock from which the medusa is budded.
It is a re markable fact that all specimens of Limnocodium hitherto seen have been males; it may be inferred from this either that only one polypstock has been introduced into Europe, from which all the medusae seen hitherto have been budded, or perhaps that the female medusa is a sessile gonophore, as in Pennaria.
In the first place the cormus has been regarded as a single individual and its appendages as organs.
The age of this building is very uncertain; it has been assigned to dates ranging from the 1st to the 4th century A.D.
Since 1512 it has been periodically exhibited.
The loss of their political independence has been followed by that of the greater part of their territory, which has been divided up into the Chilean provinces of Arauco, Bio-bio, Malleco and Cautin, and the Indians, much reduced in number, now live in the wooded recesses of the three provinces last named.
The modern doctrine of evolution or " evolving," as opposed to that of simple creation, has been defined by Prof. James Sully in the 9th edition of this encyclopaedia as a " natural history of the cosmos including organic beings, expressed in physical terms as a mechanical process."
The apparently clear distinction between flowering and flowerless plants has been broken down by the series of gradations between the two exhibited by the Lycopodiaceae, Rhizocarpeae, and Gymnospermeae.
In later years the attention of the best palaeontologists has been withdrawn from the hodman's work of making " new species " of fossils, to the scientific task of completing our knowledge of individual species, and tracing out the succession of the forms presented by any given type in time.
Since Huxley and Sully wrote their masterly essays in the 9th edition of this encyclopaedia, the doctrine of evolution has outgrown the trammels of controversy and has been accepted as a fundamental principle.
The evidence as set out by Darwin has been added to enormously; new knowledge has in many cases altered our conceptions of the mode of the actual process of evolution, and from time to time a varying stress has been laid on what are known as the purely Darwinian factors in the theory.
The balance of these tendencies has been against the attachment of great importance to sexual selection, and in favour of attaching a great importance to natural selection; but the dominant feature in the recent history of the theory has been its universal acceptance and the recognition that this general acceptance has come from the stimulus given by Darwin.
The most striking general change has been against seeing in the facts of ontogeny any direct evidence as to phylogeny.
There has been a renewed activity in the study of existing forms from the point of view of obtaining evidence as to the nature and origin of species.
When a series of the modifications of an anatomical structure has been sufficiently examined, it is frequently possible to decide that one particular condition is primitive, ancestral or central, and that the other conditions have been derived from it.
Such a condition has been termed, with regard to the group of animals or plants the organs of which are being studied, archecentric. The possession of the character in the archecentric condition in (say) two of the members of the group does not indicate that these two members are more nearly related to one another than they are to other members of the group; the archecentric condition is part of the common heritage of all the members of the group, and may be retained by any.
Ray Lankester's term, homoplasy, has passed into currency as designating such cases where different genetic material has been pressed by similar conditions into similar moulds.
The thirty years which followed the publication of the Origin of Species were characterized chiefly by anatomical and embryological work; since then there has been no diminution in anatomical and embryological enthusiasm, but many of the continually increasing body of investigators have turned again to bionomical work.
Inasmuch as Lamarck attempted to frame a theory of evolution in which the principle of natural selection had no part, the interpretation placed on their work by many bionomical investigators recalls the theories of Lamarck, and the name Neo-Lamarckism has been used of such a school of biologists, particularly active in America.
It has been the habit of biologists to use the terms variation, selection, elimination, correlation and so forth, vaguely; the new school, which has been strongly reinforced from the side of physical science, insists on quantitative measurements of the terms. When the anatomist says that one race is characterized by long heads, another by round heads, the biometricist demands numbers and percentages.
It has been a feature of great promise in recent contributions to the theory of evolution, that such contributions have received attention almost directly in proportion to the new methods of observation and the new series of facts with which they have come.
If the prosecutor have first brought him before the civil judge, the evidence is to be sent to the bishop, and the latter, if he thinks the crime has been committed, may deprive him of his office and order, and the judge shall apply to him the proper legal punishment.
Canon 13 of the first council of Orleans, which has been cited in this matter, seems to have no application.
The 6th council of Toledo (in 693) has been cited as if it visited certain very great sinners with scourging as an ecclesiastical punishment.
The same point has been taken by large bodies of clergy and laity in regard to the court of final appeal created by 25 Hen.
The appeal given to delegates appointed by the crown has been transferred, first by 2 & 3 Will.
The subject matter of ecclesiastical jurisdiction has been gradually reduced in England, &c., by various causes.
Heresy has been treated as a crime to be tried in and punished by the ordinary courts of the country, as in the cases of Servetus and Grotius.
The Church of Cyprus has been autocephalous since at any rate the oecumenical synod of Ephesus in 431.
A large part of this has been reclaimed and the sandy soil laid bare, but on the Drente and Prussian borders areas of fen still remain.
As a result, however, partly of the usual want of work on the grasslands in certain seasons, there has been a considerable emigration to America.
This was so nearly correct that the usage has been followed by other European scholars, and is being increasingly adopted.
A certain amount of progress has been made in the historical criticism of these books.
The results of these investigations show that in Ceylon from the 3rd century B.C. onwards there has been a continuous succession of teachers and scholars.
No work written in Pali in Ceylon at a date older than this has been discovered yet.
A very excellent edition of the twentyseven canonical books has been recently printed there, and there exist in our European libraries a number of Pali MSS.
It has been assumed on the strength of a passage in Capitolinus that Aurelius married Faustina in 146, but the passage is not clear, and other evidence points strongly to 140; at all events it seems certain that a daughter was born to him in 140.
In 177 occurred that persecution of Christians, the share of Aurelius in which has been the subject of so much controversy.
It has been found in Mycenaean tombs; it is known from lake-dwellings in Switzerland, and it occurs with neolithic remains in Denmark, whilst in England it is found with interments of the bronze age.
It has been conjectured that the ancient Etruscan ornaments in amber were wrought in the Italian material, but it seems that amber from the Baltic reached the Etruscans at Hatria.
The mines were visited some years ago by Dr Fritz Noetling, and the mineral has been described by Dr Otto Helm.
Schraufite is a reddish resin from the Carpathian sandstone, and it occurs with jet in the cretaceous rocks of the Lebanon; ambrite is a resin found in many of the coals of New Zealand; retinite occurs in the lignite of Bovey Tracey in Devonshire and elsewhere; whilst copaline has been found in the London clay of Highgate in North London.
The cotton-wood timber, though soft and perishable, is of value in its prairie habitats, where it is frequently the only available wood either for carpentry or fuel; it has been planted to a considerable extent in some parts of Europe, but in England a form of this species known as P. monilifera is generally preferred from its larger and more rapid growth.
This tree is of extremely rapid growth, and has been known to attain a height of 70 ft.
The native country of this form has been much disputed; but, though still known in many British nurseries as the "black Italian poplar," it is now well ascertained to be an indigenous tree in many parts of Canada and the States, and is a mere variety of P. canadensis; it seems to have been first brought to England from Canada in 1772.
It is with a full message that Paul has been entrusted, the message of Christ, who alone can lead to all the riches of fulness of knowledge.
The society has also established a chemical research laboratory, in which much useful work has been done in connexion with the national pharmacopoeia under the direction of the Pharmacopoeia Committee of the Medical Council.
The administration of the act was entrusted to the pharmaceutical society, and the duty of prosecuting unauthorized practitioners has been performed by the society ever since, without any pecuniary assistance from the state, although the legal expenses involved in prosecution amount to a considerable portion of its income.
It has been erroneously represented by interested persons that the Pharmaceutical Society desires a monopoly of the sale of poisons.
It has been decided in the law courts that a limited liability company is not a person in the eye of the law, and therefore does not come under the operation of the act of 1868.
A complete edition of his dramatic works, edited by his friend and rival Tamayo y Baus, has been published in seven volumes (Madrid, 1881 - 1885).
The fort has been dismantled; and in trade the town is outstripped by Astara, the customs station on the Persian frontier.
The question of the relation of Cicero's De inventione to the Rhetorica has been much discussed.
It has been shown that it conducts water with considerable rapidity.
The end wall is usually very thin, and the protoplasm on artificial contraction commonly sticks to it just as in a sieve-tube, though no perforation of the wall has been found.
Secondly, the histology of fossil plants, particularly woody plants of the carboniferous period, has been placed on a sound basis, assimilated with general histological doctrine, and has considerably enlarged our conceptions of plant anatomy as a whole, though again.
One of the most striking incidents in the progress has been.
As a result of this activity Van Tieghems so-called Stelar theory has been revised and modified in the light of more extended and detailed anatomical and developmental knowledge.
The latter function has been found to be of extreme importance in the case of plants exposed to the direct access of the suns rays, the heat of which would rapidly cause the death of the protoplasts were it not employed in the evaporation of the water.
Even in the higher flowering plants, in which the processes of the absorption of substances from the environment has been most fully studied, there is a stage in their life in which the nutritive processes approximate very closely to those of the group last mentioned.
When the tuber of a potato begins to germinate the shoots which it puts out derive their food from the accumulated store of nutritive material which has been laid up in the cells of the tuber.
The relation of the chlorophyll to light has been studied by many observers.
This explanation is unsatisfactory from many points of view, but till quite recently no acceptable alternative has been advanced.
The formation of formaldehyde has till recently not been satisfactorily proved, though it has been obtained from certain leaves by distillation.
Recent investigations have confirmed Baeyers view of the formation of formaldehyde, but a different explanation has been recently advanced.
Nor is the nature of the first formed sugar certain; the general opinion has been that it is a simple hexose such as glucose or fructose, C6Hi2O,.
Proteid Formation.We have seen that it has been suggested that the chlorophyll apparatus may perhaps be concerned in the manufacture of proteids as well as of carbohydrates.
The fate of these inorganiccompounds has not been certainly traced, but they give rise later on to the presence in the plant of various amino acid amides, such as leucin, glycin, asparagin, &c. That these are stages on the way to proteids has been inferred from the fact that when proteids are split up by various means, and especially by the digestive secretions, these nitrogen-containing acids are among the products which result.
Up to very recently the original absorption and subsequent treatment of the carbon dioxide and the compounds of nitrogen has been called by the same term.
Since about 1880 our knowledge of the species which can enter into such relationships has been materially extended, and the fungal constituents of the Lichens are known to include Basidiomycetes as well as Ascomycetes.
Very complete examination, however, has now been made of many instances, and the name mycorhila has been given to the symbiotic union.
The development of these structures has been studied by many observers, both in England and on the continent of Etirope.
The sap in these active tissues is alkaline, which has been interpreted as being in accordance with not appear to be concerned with digestion so directly as the others is pectase, which forms vegetable jelly from pectic substances occurring in the cell-wall.
The digestion of fat or oil has not been adequately investigated, but its decomposition in germinating seeds has been found to be due to an enzyme, which has been called lipase.
Oxidases.Another class of enzymes has been discovered in both animals and plants, but they do not apparently take any part in digestion.
Since about 1880 considerable attention has been directed to the question of the supply, distribution and expenditure of energy in the vegetable kingdom.
This is anextremely important question, since the supply of energy to the animal world has been found to depend entirely upon the vegetable one.
It has been ascertained that in many cases this decomposition is effected by the secretion of an enzyme, which has been termed zymase.
This body has been prepared from active yeast, and from fruits and other parts which have been kept for some time in the absence 01 oxygen.
This continuous change of position has been called circumnutation, and is held to be universal in all growing cylindrical organs.
This bending part has been proved to be insensitive to the stimuli.
It has been shown that if the organ containing them is shaken for some time, so that the contact between them and the protoplasm of the cells is emphasized, the stimulus becomes more efficient in producing movement.
The response made by the adult parts of plants, to which reference has been made, is brought about by a mechanism similar in nature though rather differently applied.
The existence of rhythm of this kind has been observed and studied with some completeness.
But the case is obviously different where a plant dies because some essential organ or tissue tract has been destroyed, and other parts have suffered because supplies are cut offe.g.
Cecidia or galls arise by the hypertrophy of the subepidermal cells of a leaf, cortex, &c., which has been pierced by theovipositor of an insect, and in which the egg is deposited.
The starch grain may thus be regarded as a crystalline structure of the nature of a spherecrystal, as has been suggested by many observers.
The special function of this organ has been a source of controversy during the past few years, and much uncertainty still exists as to its true nature.
In plant cells its presence has been demonstrated in the Thallophytes and Bryophytes.
It has been shown that, in cells of Spiro gyra placed under special conditions, amitotic division can be induced, and that normal mitosis is resumed when they are placed again under normal conditions.
It is clear, however, that an equal quantitative division and distribution of the chromatin to the daughter cells is brought about; and if, as has been suggested, the chromatin consists of minute particles or units which are the carriers of the hereditary characteristics, the nuclear division also probably results in the equal division and distribution of one half of each of these units to each daughter cell.
This V has been variously interpreted.
Good cytological evidence has been adduced in favor of both theories, but further investigation is necessary before any definite conclusion can be arrived at.
Notwithstanding the fact, however, that these cells are capable of acting as very efficient lenses the explanation given by Haberlandt has not been widely accepted and evidence both morphological and physiological has been brought forward against it.
The Nuclei of the Lower Plants.It is only in comparatively recent times that it has been possible to determine with any degree of certainty that the minute deeply stainable bodies described more especially by Schmitz (1879) in many Algae and Fungi could be regarded as true nuclei.
Further, it has been found convenient to designate the leaf-bearing stem as a whole by the term shoot, so that the body may, as Sachs suggested, be primarily analysed into shoot and root.